life during the civil war

Life at this point was very difficult for everyone in America. In my opinion slaves were the ones who suffered the most. African Americans at the time had no power in any way unless they lived in the Northern part of America. Even then the court believed that being in free territory did not make a slave free. Dred scott had to find out this the hard way. His owner took him from the slave state of Missouri to free territory in Illinois and Wisconsin and back to Missouri. He went to the Supreme Court in hopes of receiving his freedom. According to them though Scott lacked any legal standing to sue in federal court because he was not, and could never be, a citizen. For the slaves in the South, life was all about hard work and no pay. Brave individuals like Harriet Tubman also known as “Moses” helped slaves escape on the Underground Railroads. But again although they escaped the South, they never always received freedom.

Women from very early in time have fought to not just be known to know how to clean and provide for their family. They want to show the world that sex doesn’t matter when it comes to contributing in ways to help America when needed. A great example of women contributing, is when Sarah Morris Mifflin spined her own thread instead of using the British. This took place in 1770 in the protest against the British. Although women did all these great things that in the long run ended up helping America, they still didn’t have the same equality as men. This didn’t stop them from fighting though. Through the year’s wonderful independent and in some cases even groups of women kept on fighting. In 1972-1982 the Equal Rights Amendment tried to be passed in hopes of finally women having the same social and economic rights as men. Although the law was not passed women kept fighting. In 2001 60 women served in the House and 13 served in the senate. This proves that women have a big impact in America and are not just good for providing for families.

Civil War Changes a Nation

The civil war caused many changes throughout the U.S. It gbreatly increased the governments power and authority. Economically, the war widened the gap between north and south. The north's economy boomed while the south's collapsed. The civil war was also considered to be the first modern war, with a destructive weapon in the rifle. With the thirteenth amendment, it freed all slaves unlike the Emancipation Proclamation freed only the slaves in the states that were behind Confederate lines, and not yet under Union control. The government didn't know what to do, so the presidet hhad to go with the thirteenth amendment. The civil war resulted in 360,000 union soldier deaths and 260,000 confederate soldier deaths. The union war cost 2.3 billion dollars, compared to the confederate costing 1 billion. Inflation increased to 184% for the union, and 7000% for the confederacy.

The Road of Revolution

The Road to Revolution Blog#2 Yuli Mendoza
A.period

After the first Continental Congress me, colonist in many eastern New England towns stepped up preparations. In the spring of 1775, British General Thomas Gage ordered troops to march from Boston to nearby Concord, Massachusetts, and to seize illegal weapons. On the night of April 18, 1775, Paul Revere, William Dawes, and Samuel Prescott rode out to spread word that 700 British troops were headed from Concord. So they rang bells and gunshots signals, sent from town to town, that the British were coming. The king’s troops, known as “Redcoats” because of their uniforms, reached Lexington, Massachusetts, five miles short of Concord, on the cold, windy dawn of April 19. The British commanding officer told the minutemen to lay down their weapons and disperse. The minutemen were leaving when a shot was fired. This started the battle, it only lasted 15minutes leaving only one British soldier killed and eight minutemen killed and ten more injured.
In May there was a Second meeting of the continental Congress to debate their next course of action. Despite the debate between loyalists, who wanted reconciliation with Britain, and those who wanted independence, it was decided that George Washington was to be the head of the continental army.
In June General Gage sent 2,4oo soldiers against the militiamen Breeds Hill near Bunker Hill North of the city of
Boston. By the time his battle was over, there were 1000 British casualties 450 of the Military; by July Continental Congress was getting ready for war.

Civil War Changes The Nation -by matt G. and nick

The civil war changes the nation

The Civil Way caused political, economical, technological and social change. 360000 union soldiers and 260000 Confederate soldiers died. The amount of deaths from the Civil War was more than all other American wars combined.
The Civil War increased the government’s power and authority. They passed income taxes and conscription laws that gave control over citizens. After this, no state ever threatened secession again. Economically, the gap between the North and South was widened greatly. The North’s economy boomed, while the South’s economy declined. Due to destruction from the war, massive amounts of industry and farmland were destroyed, ending slavery as a labor system.
The civil was has been called the First Modern War for many reasons. The musket balls that were fired were made of a softer lead, which was much more destructive. The invention of the land mine and the hand grenade changed war tactics and increased war casualties greatly. The invention of the Ironclad ship was a major advancement because it could splinter wooden ships by ramming them, and it could withstand cannon fire. After this invention, all wooden ships for war became obsolete.
At the end of the Civil war, the Emancipation Proclamation and the Thirteenth Amendment permanently changed the lives of African Americans by ending slavery in the United States. On April 14th, 1865, John Wilkes Booth crept up behind Lincoln in Fords Theatre and shot him in the back of the head assassinating him.

Age of Jackson

Written by : Marlin and Jason

In the early 19^th century, different regions in the United States developed economically in different ways; the Northeast began to industrialize, while the South and the West continued in agriculture. 

The Industrial Revolution first started in New England, where the economy was heavily reliant on shipping and foreign trade. Soon enough farmers in the North improved their agriculture with the help of manufacturing, as factories produced materials items which were sold in urban markets. Meanwhile, the South focused more on agricultural power. The invention of the cotton gin made it possible to prodiuce cotton more efficiently.  

These economic differences brought political tensions between different sects of the nation.  

In 1828, President Andrew Jackson was elected to office. Putting these sectional tensions aside, he embraced the spirit of territorial expansion, and started the Age of Jackson. Jackson’s ideal political power for all classes is called Jacksonian democracy. Under this philosophy, he wanted to give common people the opportunity to participate in government. He accomplished this through the spoils system, in which new administration hire their own supporters to replace the supporters of the previous administration. By this method, he gave huge numbers of jobs to friends and political allies.  

In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, forcing Native Americans to move west. While most Native American tribes agreed to the act, the Cherokee nation refused. The Supreme Court ruled for them to leave, as the Cherokee were forced to march west in fall 1838, also known as the Trail of Tears.  

In 1828, the South’s economy relied heavily on cotton exports. The high tariff, known as the Tariff of 1816, caused fewer British exports, forcing the South to buy expensive manufactured goods from the North. This caused the North to become rich at the expense of the South.  

Vice president John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, developed a theory of nullification in attempt to free the South from the tariffs. He reasoned that the 13 sovereign states which wrote the Constitution could declare if offending laws were uncooperative with its borders. In 1832, this issue was tested when Congress raised tariffs again. South Carolinians declared the tariffs of 1828 unfair, and threatened to secede from the union if officials tried to collect duties.  

 Jackson urged the Congress to pass the Force buill to allow the federal government to use the military if state authorities resisted to pay proper duties. Henry Clay of South Carolina compromised, proposing a tariff bill that would gradually lower duties over the course of 10 years. This temporarily eased tensions between the states’ rights and the federal authority.  

Upon his reelection in 1832, Jackson tried to decrease federal power when it came to the Second Bank of the United States, and withdrew all government deposits, storing them in certain state banks called “pet banks.” Although Jackson won the Bank War, his actions angered many people, leading to the creation of the Whig Party, formed by his opponents.  

Jackson refused to run for a third term in 1836, and thus his opponent Van Buren of the Whig Party easily won the election. Along with presidency, he also inherited the consequences of the bank war. By May 1837, many banks stopped accepting paper currency. Bank closings and the collapse of the credit card system cost many people their savings, and put a third of the population out of work.  

In 1840, William Henry Harrison took office, for people blamed the economic slump on Van Buren. As Harrison died a month after taking office, Vice President John Tyler took power, and halted Whig reforms.  

Since the Jefferson Era up to the Age of Jackson, the styles of politics in America had changed dramatically. While his legacy is mainly known for his support of Native American removal, his presidential influence changed how politics were run. Political speeches were more for entertainment, which allowed more Americans to become involved with the political process. This was to continue as expansion moved further west into places like Texas and California.

Mr. Carnegie and Mr. Rockefeller

Both steel and oil are important to industrial revolution. Two great men, Andrew Carnegie and Rockefeller, earned their wealth by dealing with the steel and oil.

Andrew Carnegie was born in a poor family in Scotland. He came to U.S. in 1848 when he is twelve. At his eighteenth, he became private secretary to the local superintendent of the Pennsylvania Railroad. Carnegie received his first dividend soon after his boss allowed him to buy stock. He left his job at the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1865 and began his steel business in 1873. As he dealing with steel company, his talent in business revealed. He tried to gain as much control of steel industry as he could. By 1899, the amount of steel that Carnegie’s company manufactured is greater than the total amount of steel manufactured by Great Britain. The explanations for Carnegie’s success are hard work, shrewd investment, and innovative business practice.

In the contrast, John D. Rockefeller gained his wealth in another way. Rockefeller gained his fortune by a trust which provided by other people . Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Company only possessed 2-3 percent of the country’s crude oil in 1870. In order to drove his competitors out of this business, Rockefeller sold the oil in a price that even lower than the production cost. As soon as he controlled the market, he hiked the price far more than original and gained huge profit. No more than ten years, Rockefeller gained the total control of the oil industry in America.

Both Carnegie and Rockefeller spent part of their property in philanthropy. Rockefeller Foundation, established by Rockefeller for over $500 million, provided funds to found the University of Chicago and created a medical institute. Carnegie donated about 90 percent of his whole wealth to support the arts and learning.

Women & Political Power (p. 64-65)

Throughout the history of the United States women have had a surprising amount of influence despite the fact that they were denied rights. It took many acts for women to gain these rights and the respect that they deserved. In the 1770s, during the revolutionary war, women helped in the fight against Britain. They boycotted tea and other British products. Sarah Morris Muffin spun her own thread instead of using British thread. The first copy of the Declaration of Independence was printed by a woman, Mary Goddard.
In 1848, women started taking a stand against their unequal treatment. Two women, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, led the first women's suffrage movement in the United States. This movement began at the Seneca Falls conference in Seneca Falls, New York. Unfortunately, women did not get suffrage until 1920, when the united states adopted the 19th amendment.
Although women got suffrage in the 1920s the discrimination did not stop. From 1972 to 1982 women tried to pass the Equal Rights Amendment which ensured the same social and economical rights as men. The ERA was not passed due to many people's fear of unwanted change. Today equal benefits for men and women is not a problem in the United States, but still haunts many other countries around the world.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3dPF0SGh_PQ

COLONIAL COURTSHIP

In many modern cultures it is widely accepted, if not expected, for teenagers to begin dating relatively freely. This was not always the case; in the 17th and 18th centuries, teenage courtship was unheard of. Dating was strictly controlled by parents, with rules based on religion and culture.

"Frontier" or "back-country" people were of Scottish-Irish decent, and carried many of their beliefs in regards to courtship with them. Men would "abduct" a woman of their choice, typically with her consent. Men and his court of friends would band together and steal the bride, the ceremony being a boisterous dancing-drinking celebration.

Much stricter Puritans, considered marriage not a union of religious significance or of love, but of a mutually beneficial "civil contract". They utilized such tools as "courting sticks," used for private conversations between couples, and "bundling boards" to separate suitors when they sleep. Ceremonies consisted of civil, quiet, dinners, in contrast to the wild parties of the back-country community.

The Quakers, not unlike the Puritans, were also very strict in terms of marriage and courtship. Before a Quaker couple could marry, they would need the approval of both their parents and the entire community as well as undergo a sixteen step courtship phase. Despite this long and arduous process, Quaker women would sometimes reject men at the last minute.

Courtship among South societies also included ceremonies. African American slaves practiced the marriage rite of "jumping the broomstick", a ritual in which the bride and groom jump over a broomstick to seal their union.

In Virginia, marriage was not based on love, but were still considered sacred unions. Since marriage also involved the union of properties, the parents of the couple were involved in many negotiations.

By Grace M. and Casey F.

Voting Rights

After the declaration of independence in 1776, America built its own government system.
The new constitution of 1788 allowed only few Americans to vote.
One year later, in 1789, some states extended voting rights to male taxpayers with an age of at least 21 years. Women and African-Americans were usually not allowed to vote.
In 1870 the admission of the 15th amendment guaranteed African-American males the right to vote.
Despite having the right to vote, many of them were kept from voting due to the poll taxes and the literacy test. Finally the 24th amendment abolished the poll taxes (1964) and the Voting Right Act suspended the literacy test (1965).
Women began to demonstrate for their voting right. In 1920, the 19th amendment allowed native American women to vote.
In the Vietnam War (1960's) younger people became interested in politics. They had to go to war and fight for their country.
The 26th amendment allowed voting rights for 18 years of age or older, to include the younger population.

The Civil War Changes the Nation

The civil war led to political, economic, technological and social changes in the United States. The war itself ravaged the human population taking the lives of 360,000 Union soldiers and 260,000 Confederate soldiers. During the civil war, the federal government passed laws which gave them more control over citizens. While the Northern states flourished, the Southern states became a rural wasteland for poor industry and farming.

The war led to technological advances in warfare. New weapons included the rifle and the minie ball, which is a soft lead bullet. Grenades and landmines were enhanced to change modern warfare forever. Wooden ships became obsolete to the newer ironclad ships which were more durable and lethal.

As a result of the war, the government passes the Thirteenth Amendment which bans slavery. Due to the radical social changes within America at this time, certain individuals did not approve of Lincoln's controversial views. John Wilkes Booth, an actor and active support of the South, did not approve of these changes.

On April 14, 1865 Lincoln and his wife attended a British Comedy at Ford's Theater. During the third act of the play, John Wilkes Booth snuck behind and fired a shot into the back of Lincoln's head.

With the war over, slavery and secession were abolished. However, the country still faces potential and current problems.

- Felix and Kevin

Progression of Voting in America

Around 1789, in the beginning years of the United States, voting rights extended to all male taxpayers. These were mostly wealthy Caucasian male land-owners, but in some states free African-Americans were granted the right to vote. Many state constitutions required that the voter be at least 21 years old.
About 80 years later, in 1870, The Fifteenth Amendment stated a U.S. Citizens' right to vote "shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous conditions of servitude." Although this amendment was passed successfully, African Americans were prevented from voting with poll taxes that were not abolished until 1964 by the Twenty-Fourth Amendment. Literacy tests also served as a way of preventing African-Americans from voting, but in 1965 they too were stopped with a separate Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Another huge issue was suffrage for women which was not granted until 1920 with the passing of the 19th amendment. 4 years later, citizenship was extended to Native Americans, including the right to vote.
The Vietnam War brought up many other issues in America, including the voting age. Many argued that if you were old enough to be drafted to the army, you should be granted the right to vote. In 1971, the Twenty-Sixth Amendment was ratified, and to this day anyone who is 18 or older has the right to vote.

by Mingming and Hannah :)

Courtship, Colonial Style

The many different colonies formed between 1630 and 1763 had vastly different cultures, representing their different ancestry and lifestyles. Perhaps one of the clearest examples of their diversity is their various paths to marriage. Although all of these people limited dating to young adults and grown men and women, their courting varied greatly.

In the rugged backcountry, a man would "steal" a wife from her family (who knew about it before), as per tradition. These mainly Scot-Irish colonists had based theirconcept on an "abduction" ceremony of the past. The following wedding would be filled with wild drinking and dancing as the bride, groom, and their friends celebrated. Almost every person eneded up married, and the age to marry was far younger, with little difference between the age of brides and grooms.

On the other hand, in Virginia (one of the earliest colonies), marriage was a sacred and religious union. Love was unnecessary; on the other hand, the exchange of property and money between the parents took high priority. These marriages were far more civilized than the backcountry parties; the new couples had to keep up countless social graces in their new lives together. Oddly, although nearly all women married, one-fourth of all men never did. In addition, first-cousin marraiges and large age differences (10+ years) were allowed. Divorce was illegal in Virginian colonies.

Puritans took marriage as neither religious or sacred, but a civil contract. The strict customs prevented courting between a couple without the supervision of their parents. In addition, to dissuade pre-marital sexual relations, the Purtitans adapted interesting practices-- such as a "courting stick" tube to allow two loves to talk between rooms, and a "bundling board" placed between two lovers in bed. Before the actual marriages, leaders of the meeting house were allowed to voice any opinions. Following the test was a simple civil ceremony and dinner, neither with the grace of Virginia or the celebration of the backcountry. Most men and women married, and their was little age difference. Unlike with the Virginians, first cousin marriages were discouraged. Divorce, suprisingly, was legal.

The Quakers followed a very communalistic lifestyle; as a result, their marriages needed the permissions of the entire community. To gain the approval of large group, the lovers needed to complete a long, 16-step courtship. Even with this all out of the way, many Quaker women were known to reject their men. Almost a fifth of the women were single, and first-cousin marriages were forbidden. Divorce was strictly illegal.

In the case of slaves in the South, many of the customs followed by white colonists in other cultures would be impossible. Instead, African slaves took on their own customs, some based on those of Africa and some innovated to fit their harsh conditions. For example, their was a custom of plantation slave couples "jumping the broom stick" to complete their marriage.

These different customs are only of the sample of the many conventions-- simple or complicated, religious or civil, graceful or rowdy-- that young couples underwent to hold each others hand in marriage.

Women and Political Power

In the 1770s British women weren't allowed to participate in politics. To get their views  to the across to the government, women used to boycott British items such as tea, clothing, and thread. Women would spin their own thread and make their own clothes.

In 1848, women in America realized that they were not equal to men in the sense of rights and suffrage. So then they started the first suffrage movement. It was started by Elizabeth Cady Stanton ad Lucretia Mott in Seneca Falls, New York. By 1920 the 19th amendment was written and passed. The amendment gave women the right to vote.

By the mid 1900's women working included in the working class but still felt that they were not equal to men because of their their lower pay. The Equal Rights Amendment was written but not passed because many people, both men and women, thought that it would bring "unwanted change"(pg65 of textbook).

Though there were challenges in the beginning, many women today have achieved important positions in our society politically and economically. 

yasmeen

Voting Rights by Edoardo, and Da Vonnia

EDITORS: EDOARDO, DA VONNIA

Voting Rights 

American colonists declared their independence from Great Britain in 1776, they struggle to create a representative Government, the state constitution established voting rights, but only for certain citizens. These small amount of citizens were 21 years of age, and generally were all white. Because of the fact that the Articles of Confederation did not address voting rights, the existing state law remained the same. In 1788, a new constitution was established to replace the articles of confederation, but it did not address voting right to many people in the United States. Over the years the right to vote expanded to more and more citizens. Which allow them to practice local and national government. 

During 1789, property qualification were more open in some states(Pennsylvania, Delaware, North Carolina, Georgia, and Vermont) to include all male taxpayers, and woman were not allow to vote. Some states allowed free African Americans to vote.

During 1870, the fifteenth amendment attempted to guarantee African American males the right to vote. The amendment stated"to vote shall not be denied or abridged[limited] by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." One way government limited the African American vote, was through poll taxes, which were finally abolished in 1964 by the 24th amendment. 

During 1920, the nineteenth amendment granting voting rights to woman, was finally ratified. Four years later, the nineteenth Amendment gave citizenship to Native Americans, which gave them the right to vote. 

During 1971, the twenty- sixth Amendment guaranteed the right to vote citizens" eighteen years of age or older" 

 

Voting Rights

By Aimee and Nicky


American colonists declared independence from Great Britain in 1776. They were trying to create a representative government, but not all the U.S. citizens had the right to vote. The Articles of Confederation didn't address voting rights, and even after it was replaced by the new Constitution, many people still couldn't vote. However, more and more citizens gained the voting rights as the Constitution was amended over the years.

In 1789, male property owners or taxpayers who had reached the age of 21 were free to vote. Women weren't allowed to vote at that time. Some states allowed free African Americans to vote, but people who qualified to vote were generally white.

In 1870, The 15th Amendment was passed and that allowed African American males to vote. However, there was a lot of white opposition to this and some states made it impossible for black men to vote. For example, these states passed laws that stated that people had to take a literacy test in order to vote. Most black men weren't educated at that time, and therefore couldn't. Also, the people who gave the tests could pass or fail anybody they liked.

In 1920, women gained suffrage and could vote. In 1924, Native Americans were also given the right to vote.

In 1971, the 26th Amendment was passed. It lowered the requirement age for voting to 18 or older. This amendment was passed becuase there was controversy over the fact that young males were drafted to go to war during the Vietnam War but couldn't vote. It was deemed unfair, so the amendment was passed and the age was lowered.

Life During the Civil War

Despite the atrocities that the Civil War wrought on American life, many social improvements emerged in response to the nation's underlying problems. These issues, such as insufficient war medicine, unjust drafts, and discrimination within the military were brought to the attention of the American public during the war and many quickly acted to fix them.

One of the these improvements was the American Red Cross, which Clara Barton, a dedicated Union nurse, founded after coping with the inadequate medical care of both Union and Confederate soldiers. The lack of medical technology combined with the squalid conditions on the battlefield, such as sparing diet and exposure to excrement, stimulated the contraction of dysentery and diarrhea and the spread of body lice. War prisoners commonly fell ill with pneumonia in overcrowded and unsanitary war prisons, which seldom provided enough food, space or medicine. Thousands of women from both the North and the South rose to the challenge of caring for these sickly soldiers. The Union alone provided 3,000 army nurses, one of whom was Clara Barton.

The Civil War also underscored the injustice of forcing citizens into war. In an attempt to augment battalions after heavy casualties and desertions, the North and the South enacted a draft, which was met with violent remonstrance. Draft riots sprang up in cities across the North, such as the one portrayed in the final scenes of Martin Scorsese's historical film Gangs of New York.



And even in the fight to rid the States of discrimination, African-American soldiers in the Union Army were paid less than their white counterparts and were assigned to separate regiments. Perhaps even more outrageous is the fact that black soldiers constituted about 10% of the Union army, even though the North's black population was a miniscule 1%. In the modern U.S. military, soldiers are not separated by ethnicity nor are specific racial groups targeted for service.

From Sea to Shining Sea

Manifest destiny is a phrase that illustrates the belief of predestined westward expansion shared by many Americans in the 1800's. During the 1840's, an "expansion fever" took over the United States. Americans traveled and settled in the west due to trade,the prospect of new life, the escape of persecution, the inexpensive land, and manifest destiny.

From 1821 through the 1860's, traders and settlers loaded their wagons and set off toward the west. One of the busiest routes was the Santa Fe Trail, which went from Independence, Missouri, to Santa Fe, New Mexico. This trail was mainly occupied with traders.

Another route used to travel to the west was the Oregon Trail, which was blazed in 1836. This trail started in Independence, Missouri, and ended in Oregon City, Oregon. Many pioneers used this trail to escape the economic problems in the east and migrate to the west in search for a new life.

One group of people, called the Mormons, used the Oregon Trail and migrated west in order to escape persecution. Faced with anti-Mormon mobs in Ohio and Illinois, the Mormons decided to move farther west. In the end, the Mormons settled in a desert near the Great Salt Lake. By irrigating the land, the desert transformed into settlements and farms. This desert is now known as Salt Lake City.

Some Americans also settled in Texas, a Mexican region at the time, because of the inexpensive land. In 1821, a settler by the name of Stephen F. Austin established a colony in Texas where "no drunkard, no gambler, no profane swearer, and no idler" would be allowed. This colony, named San Felipe de Austin, consisted of three hundred families. As more Americans settled in Texas, the number of Anglo, or English-speaking, people surpassed the number of Mexicans. By 1830 there were more than 20,000 Americans in Texas.

This prodigious number of Anglo settlers, along with the instability of Mexican politics, created a "great" opportunity for the American government. Due to the unstable government, a rebellion broke out in Texas called the Texas Revolution. In the end of this revolution, Texas gained independence from Mexico. After their independence, most Texans wanted the United States to annex the Texan republic.

The annexation angered the Mexican government, and President Polk, the president of the United States at that time, saw this anger as a great opportunity to gain more land in the west and fulfill the the prophesy of manifest destiny. By provoking the Mexican government, the United States was able to declare war on Mexico. After a year of fighting, Mexico conceded defeat. On February 2, 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, confirming the borderline between the United States and Mexico and giving the territories of New Mexico and California to the United States in exchange for $15 million.

However, this was not the end of the exchanges of land for money. Five years later, Mexico was paid $10 million for another piece of territory. This purchase was called the Gadsden Purchase. With the new territory, the construction of the transcontinental railroad was made possible. Also, the current borders of the 48 states was established. Finally, the United States reached from "sea to shining sea."

By Angela

The Road to Revolution

After the meeting of the First Continental Congress, colonists from many eastern New England cities stepped up military preparations. Minutemen stockpiled firearms and gunpowder. British General Thomal Gage fond out and in spring 1775 he ordered troops march from Boston to Concorde, Massachussets, to seize illegal weapons. But the colonists were watching and on the nigbt of April 18th, 1775, Paul Revere, William Davies and Samuel Prescott spread word that the british headed for Concorde. So they rand bells and shot their guns as prearanged signals that were sent from town to town.
When the British arrived in Lexington, a small town near Concorde, 70 minutemen were waiting for them. In this first fight of the Revolutionary war, 18 minutemen were killed, 10 injured but only one redcoat was wounded. This battle lasted for 15 minutes.
When the British arrived in Concorde, all they found was an empty arsenal. They wanted to march mack to Boston, but three- to fourthousand minutemen had gathered in Concorde by then and attacked them. The remaining British troops went back to Boston that night. Colonists were now "officially" the enemies of Britain and held Boston and its encampment of British troops under siege.
In may 1775, the Second Continental Congress was held in Philadelphia. It was an endless debate. Some delegates called for indepe´ndence, other argued for reconciliation with Great Britain. The Congress agreed in the end to recognize the colonial militia as the Continental Army and appointed George Washington as its leader.
On June 17, 1775, Thomas Gage sent 2400 British soldiers up on Breed's Hill near Bunker Hill. The British attacked the colonials, who held their fire until the lasst moment, and in the end suffered over 1000 men. The colonials only lost 450 men. In spite of its wrong name, this battle was considered the most deadliest.
By July, the SCC was ready for war, but still hoped for peace, blaming only the ministers, not King George III. On July 8th, congress sent the so-called Olive Branch Petition to the king. But the king rejected it and declared war.

Hardwork and Dedication, A Women's Life

Women have fought over the years to put their opinions into action. From the late 1700s to the earl 2000s, women have fought their way into this country. It first started in the 1770s, women joined in for a strike against Britain. They rioted against tea and even sewing thread. Many years passed by and we come upon the year of 1848. Women began to realize that they were looked down upon even more as these years passed by. They were given fewer rights than men. They were not allowed to vote and their opinion was worthless to the world. But, Elizabeth Stanton and Lucretia Mott launched the first women’s suffrage meeting in the U.S. They argued for their rights and explain that they were not being treated fairly or equally. They made a declaration which in it they expressed their views and opinions on what they had been feeling and seeing over the years and now. Women were later allowed to vote in the 1920s. Americans generated the 19th amendment, which allowed them to do what they could not for so long. In 1972-1982, women were still unsatisfied with their lack of inequality. They were working hard, but not receiving the respect in which they most certainly deserved. Women wanted to be treated equally to men, so they passed an Equal Rights Amendment. Women all over the country supported this decision, but men feared that women would become too powerful. They turned down the amendment. Many women have achieved strong positions in this nation. They had major contributions to political, social, and economical structures here today. Women are a great contribution to who we are and things that we have experienced to this day. Being women in this world can sometimes be difficult, but you begin to learn that not all things start out easy. With handwork and dedication, there might just be hope in the looking.

The Civil War's Catostraphic Output

The Civil War was fought between two contentious sides of the United States. The North vs. the South. These two sections were not exactly antithetical, but had very diverse and different views of certain situations. The North and South were not quite similar when it came to their views and opinions, but the South’s agreeable view to slavery caused conflict between the two regions. Southerners relied on the work of slaves, for they accompanied much land on plantations. Northerners did not have the need for slaves because they were a bit more industrialized, resulting in more revolt towards slavery use. In California, slavery issues began to rise. The war led to many conflicts between the South and the North. African Americans began to fight for their freedom. They made up a small majority of the population but their servitude was many. There were many casualties on both sides of the war. The African populations made up a small amount of the North’s population, but more than 10% had joined to help fight with the Union. No matter how hard they fought, no matter how man had died, the African American population still was abused my discrimination. They were segregated from the whites and were treated under them. Conditions turned harsh on both sides. Women began to take a stand. They helped nurse the wounded. Even though women were not given the proper justification, they still helped put healing hands in the wars fatal accidents. The war overpowered much of the South. The Union lost much of its resources. It’s lack of economical resources led to starvation. The North was undergoing an economic boom. This wasn’t all so very tainting, for it had its down faults. Many immigrants were not getting paid what they needed or should have been. They faced a crisis and began to strike. When people quit, whites began to hire slaves to work for them. The Civil War was full of many hard and rough times. It not only changed the North and South subtly, but it changed their whole lifestyle and culture.

The Road To Revolution

After The First Continental Congress, many New England towns began military preparations. Firearms and gunpowder were stockpiled by minutemen, until General Thomas Gage ordered troops to seize the illegal weapons. April 18, 1775, Paul revere, William Dawes, and Samuel Prescott raced through the countryside to announce the arrival of 700 British soldiers. When armed minutemen lined up against the British 'redcoats', they were fired upon by the soldiers. Eight minutemen were killed, and ten were wounded. The Battle Of Lexington lasted only fifteen minutes, but signaled the beginning of the Revolutionary War.

After an unsuccessful march to Concord, the soldiers began their journey back to Boston. As they marched, they were fired upon by 3000-4000 minutemen. After humiliating defeat, the remaining redcoats retreated to Boston, held under siege by the colonists.

In May of 1775, the Second Continental Congress was held in Philadelphia, Divided loyalties between colonists created many heated debates. Some argued for the colonists' independence, while many remained loyal to Great Britain. However,the agreement was eventually made that the colonial militia would serve as the continental army, and George Washington would be it's commander.

In Boston, Thomas Gage made the decision to strike at Breed's Hill on June 17, 1775. 2,400 British advanced on the colonists, but were quickly driven back by colonial fire. The colonial casualties numbered only 450, in comparison to the british 1,00 lives lost.

By July, the colonies were being readied for war, despite still hoping for peace. Many delegates of the Second Continental Congress remained loyal to British King George III. On July 8, the Olive Branch Petition, urging harmony between he colonies and Britain, was sent to him. This petition was quickly rejected by the King, and urged Parliament to create a naval blockade against the 'rebelling' colonies.

-Taylor and Adam

Voting Rights

The 1776 Declaration of Independence was signed to end “taxation without representation.” In reality, suffrage (the right to vote) in America would remain highly limited until the late 20^th century. After the Revolutionary War, the Articles of Confederation let suffrage rules be decided by the states. Even the 1789 Constitution failed to create national voting rights. As a result, voting was typically limited to white, male taxpayers- the people who ran those states. This would slowly begin to change.

The 15^th Amendment(1870) was the first step in changing national suffrage; it legally allowed males of every race and social status to vote. But even after the 15^th, voting in the South (and even in some Northern states) was largely limited. High poll taxes and difficult literacy tests, which white voters could skip, continued to prevent non-white voting. These devious methods would remain in place till the mid-1965.

Women had tried to secure their suffrage with the 15^th, but they were not included in the amendment. They were only allowed to vote 50 years later, following the passing of the19^th Amendment . Four years later, suffrage was finally extended to all American citizens (including Native American citizens, who had previously been prevented from citizenship). In addition, the ratification of the 24th amendment (1964) and the Voting Rights Act (1965) abolished poll-taxes and literacy tests, respectively.

The national voting age at that time was twenty-one (a few states had lowered it to eighteen). But during the Vietnam War, men were drafted from eighteen years and older were drafted. Many saw their inability to vote about the war they were going to fight in an unfair irony. So, because of the 26^th Amendment (1971), all citizens eighteen years or older can vote today.

-Gayan

The road to revolution

Da Vonnia
Edoardo

The Road to Revolution

After the first continental congress met, the colonists stepped up military preparations. General Thomas Gage learned about these activities, and he ordered troops to march from Boston to Concord(Massachusetts), to take their illegal weapons. April 18, 1775, Pau Revere, William Dawes, and Samuel Prescott rode out to spread word tat 700 British troops were headed to Concord. In April 19, the British encounter 70 minutemen, which was the first battle of the revolutionary war which lasted only lasted 15 minutes. The first shot fire, is now known as the “first shot heard around the world”. The British troops marched to concord where they were met by between 3000 and 4000 minutemen who fired on the marching troop s using guerrilla warfare. This encounters very significant to us history because it was the first time the colonist had fought and humiliated the British.

The second continental congress meeting was in Philadelphia in may 1775. The meeting was about discussing the next move against Great Britain, some of the colonist leaders were divided on the decisions. Some delegates called for independence while other wanted to reconciliate with Great Britain. At the end congress agreed to recognize the colonial militia and appointed George Washington as their commander.

On June 1775 general gates decided to strike the minutemen on Breed’s Hill, north of a city and near Bunker Hill gates sent 2400. The colonists held their fire until the last minuet of the battle. By the time the smoke cleared the colonists had lost 450 men while British suffered over 1000 casualties, this was known as the deadliest battle of the war. Bu July the second continental congress meet again hopping for peace. Congress sent the king so olive branch petition arguing the return of “the reformed harmony” between Brittan and the colonists. King George rejected the petition he issued a proclamation stating the colonies were in rebellion.

Colonial Courtship

Although all processes of colonial courtship involved only adults, different community traditions caused variations of courtship and marriage customs. Community traditions were often affected by the colonists’ cultural backgrounds, including religion and geographic location prior to immigration.

The majority of colonists in the frontier or backcountry colonies originated from Scotland and Ireland. As a result, their practices were based on the Scottish-Irish tradition of "abducting" the bride (who had previously given consent). The groom and his friends would steal the bride away from her home and to the ceremony. These frontier and backcountry weddings were quite festive and accompanied with drinking and dancing.

In contrast to the frontier and backcountry colonists, Puritans did not view marriage as occasion for festivities nor as a religious or sacred union. A marriage served strictly as a civil contract and was conducted in a simple civil ceremony that ended in a quiet dinner. Marriage was preceded by a supervised period of courting that included rather strange practices. For example, the couple was often given a long tube called a courting stick. The man and woman would whisper to each other through the tube while the rest of the family was in another room. What excitement! Another unusual custom was "bundling." The couple would share a bed for the night, but with a large wooden board, called a bundling board, separating their bodies and preventing any exciting physical contact. Scandalous! When the couple was ready to get married, they were required to subject their proposal of marriage to the scrutiny of Puritan leaders, who would either object or approve of their union.

Similarly, Quaker couples needed the approval of their Quaker community before getting married. Marriages followed one of the most extensive courtship processes in all the colonies, one which involved 16 steps. Despite, or perhaps because of, the lengthy courting phase, Quaker women occasionally backed out of the marriage at the last minute.

Southern slaves followed their own courtship customs as well. One was the "jumping the broomstick" ceremony. The bride and groom would jump over a broomstick to symbolize their procession from courtship to marriage.

Love was not often considered an important criterion in marriages, and courtship in Virginia was no exception. Although marriage was considered a sacred union, it was also more of a business transaction of properties than the pairing of soulmates. Consequently, parents were deeply involved in courtship to ensure the most fiscally secure marriage for their respective child.

-Noelle

Manifest Destiny

Written by: Marlin and Jason


Shortly after the War of 1812, only a few Americans explored the West. However, by the 1840’s, many Americans believed in the idea of manifest destiny, the belief that the United States was predestined by god to expand to the Pacific Ocean and into Mexican and Native territory; this was believed to be inevitable. In addition to manifest destiny, Americans had several reasons for moving west. Settlers moved to the West in hopes of acquiring parts of abundant land. Merchants and manufacturers followed the settlers, seeking markets for their goods. Many Americans also moved West in hopes of escaping economic problems in the East.

Settlers and traders who travelled west followed old Native-American trails, which included the Santa Fe Trail and the Oregon Trail. Settlers traveled in large groups, in fear of attacks from Native-Americans.

In 1821, Stephen F. Austin established colonies in Texas, the main settlement known as San Felipe de Austin. By 1825, 297 land grants were issued to settlers, resulting in over 20,000 Americans residing in Texan lands.

In the late 1840's, hundreds of thousands of Americans moved west into California, as the Gold Rush began. Mining camps quickly sprung up, as gold revolutionized the Californian economy. San Francisco soon became the "pandemonium of a city", as California's economy quickly rose above other areas. In the end, California reached a gold production value of two billion dollars.

The idea of Manifest Destiny evidently lead to the expansion of American land into what it is today. Settlements were made throughout the Midwest and West coast, and the American economy rose out of its previous slump.

Voting Rights

Voting Rights by Matt and Yuli

In 1776 the colonists declared independence from Britain to create a representative government. The new constitution in 1788 did not extend voting rights to many people, however amendments gradually extended rights to more and more citizens.
As of 1789 male property owners of 21 years old or more were allowed to vote. People who qualified were usually white, and occasionally African American males. The fifteenth amendment attempted to guarantee African Americans the right to vote. However they were often kept from voting through the use of poll taxes, which were finally abolished by the 24th amendment.
In the early 1920’s women were granted suffrage with the 19th amendment. After women got the right to vote, the nineteenth amendment also extended to Native Americans.
In the mid 19th century the 26th amendment made citizens 18 years old or older eligible to vote. The idea behind allowing people above 18 years old to vote was people found it weird that people who were being drafted and going to war are not allowed to vote.

Life in the Civil War

The war had many casualties, which caused each side to impose conscription, which is a draft that forced men to serve in the army. This causewd many riots, the worst of which in New York City. There were many more changes to come in wartime with economies on both sides and the roles played by African Americans and women.

180,000 African Americans fought for the Union which made up 10 percent of the northern army. They still suffered from discrimination. They served in separate regiments commanded by white officers and earned the lowest pay for most of the war.

The soldiers in the war on both the Union and the Confederacy had flithy surroundings, limited diet, and bad health care. Besides fighting or marching, most of the soldiers lived in heaps of rubbish and open latrines. Body lice, dysentery, and diarrhea were a result of all of this. The conditions in army camps, however, were far worse than the conditions in army camps. They overcrowded and unsanitary. The South's lack of food and tents also contributed to the appalling conditions. Northern prisons were only slightly better. They provided more space and adequate amounts of food. Although thousands of Confederate were put in places with little to no heat, so they contracted pneumonia and died.

Women didn't fight in the war, but they did contribute to the war effort. 3,000 women in the north served as nurses, while many thousands of women in the south volunteered as well. Both sides benefited because many women contributed to the war effort. Women's help was desperately needed as a series of battles in the Mississippi Valley and in the East soon sent casualties to hospitals in the North and South.

Women and Political Power

By Shan-Cheng(Aimee) and Nicky

Many American women tried to make America a better place throughout the history. They worked for justice of the citizens and fought for their rights. Since the 1770s, women took a role in making history by protesting against Britain. Even normal housewives contributed by boycotting tea and British made clothes. The, they began to realize that they have been treated unequally and in 1848, at the Seneca Falls Convention, two women, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, started the first women's rights movement. Stanton issued a Declaration of Sentiments that demanded more rights and equality for women.

Their hard work paid off in 1920, when the United States passed the 19th Amendment, which granted the right to vote to women. At last, they had gained suffrage. However, they didn't always have success. In 1972 to 1982, they tried to pass the Equal Rights Amendment because they realized that they were paid less than men for equal work. However this wasn't ratified becuase people, men and women alike, thought that unwanted change would come out of it.

Even though they failed in passing the ERA, they gained strong positions politically, socially, and economically. The House of Representatives had 60 women and the Senate had 13 in the 107th Congress by 2001.

The Road to Revolution

After the First Continental Congress, minutemen, which were colonists ready to spring into action in case of a British attack, began mobilizing for war. Knowing this, General Thomas Gage of the British army sent troops from Boston to Concord to seize illegal weapons. The night before the British seize, Paul Revere, William Dawes, and Samuel Prescott rode out to alert the colonies that the British were coming. The first outbreak of the revolutionary war began on the way to Concord at Lexington, Massachusetts on April 19, 1775. The battle only lasted 15 minutes because of the far greater British force. The redcoats continued to Concord to find the weapons arsenal, but were confounded when it was empty. They then proceeded to march back to Boston. On the way back, 3000 minutemen assembled to ambush the British. This resulted in major casualties for the British.

In May 1775, colonial leaders called the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia. There was a dispute over pursuing independence and reconciling with Britain. Despite the differences, Congress continued to create the Continental Army and appointed George Washington as its comander.

On June 17, 1775, General Gage sent 2400 British soldiers to Breed's Hill which was occupied by the colonists. A battle emerged and resulted in 450 colonial casualties and 1000 British casualties. Despite the success of the colonies, some delegates still felt loyal to George III and blamed his ministers.

On July 8, Congress sent the king the Olive Branch Petition, urging to bring back the mutual companionship they had in the past. Instead of complying, King George III ordered a naval blockade to isolate the ships heading to America.

-Felix, Kevin

Amendments for Voting Right

Since the American Colonists declare their independence in 1776, a new government was established. The voting rights became more and more important in order to choose a proper leader. Although the Americans enjoy their voting right recently, few people are able to vote 200 years ago. Voting right has been amended for several times during this 200 years.

At first, the voting rights are only open to male property owners. Although the new constitution was written, this condition did not change at all. For exception, African American males are allowed to vote in some states.

In 1870s, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution enabled the African American males to vote. However, African American males are often kept from voting. Women are still not allowed to vote at that time.

In 1920s, voting rights are open to women after the Nineteenth Amendment to the constitution, with the effort of many other women who try to expand voting rights.

Four years later, voting rights was extended to all Native American who is older than 21.

Since people are not satisfied with the government who draft citizen of 18 but not allowed them to vote, the government amended the Voting right again. Citizen who is 18 years or older finally had the rights to vote thanks to the Twenty-sixth Amendment to the Constitution.

Approximately 200 years after America declared their independence; the voting rights are open to most citizens. The amendments to the voting right prove that the rights has become more and more equivalent to all citizens of America.

Dred Scott vs. Sandford (1857)

by Cat and Mira

A slave by the name of Dred Scott was brought by his master from Missouri to live for a short time in the free state of Illinois. Upon returning to Missouri, Scott began to argue that he should be allowed to live free since he had lived in a free state. He sued for his freedom in 1854, and appealed to the Supreme Court when the state court ruled against him. 

Scott's lawyers argued that Scott's wife, whom had married while in the free state of Illinois, and his 

daughter, born while on a steamboat back to Missouri, should be allowed to live from then on in emancipation. Under Chief Justice Roger Taney, the Supreme Court ruled that African Americans were not considered, and never could be considered, citizens. They added that because of this, they were not allowed to sue in court. Scott remained enslaved. Chief Justice Taney went on to say that by banning slavery, Congress was taking away peoples' property. All congressional efforts to ban slavery in the territories was prohibited. Many dissenters argued that previous acts of Congress, such as the Northwest Ordinance, had limited slavery, and no one had claimed that these acts violated property rights, and therefore the Fifth Amendment. Nevertheless, Taney's strong proslavery position became a part of the national law. 

After the Civil War, the Thirteenth Amendment (1865) and the Fourteenth Amendment (1868) showed the federal government's efforts to abolish slavery. Dred Scott vs. Sandford could no longer be used a precedent for future cases. It was instead viewed as one of the worst decisions ever made by the Supreme Court.

by Cat and Mira 

Colonial Courtship

In the colonial age there were many ways to court a woman. The frontier or backcountry people had a custom to steal their wife before the wedding. But this could only be done by the woman's consent. After her consent the groom would come with his friends and take her. The bride and groom were usually around the same age.

The Puritans on the other hand had a really strict marriage arrangements. It was more of a civil contract than a religious union. The couple had to be supervised together at all times by a parent. They were allowed to speak to each other through a long tube. The Puritans also had a strange practice of allowing the couple to sleep together in the same bedroom, but with a long board between them. This was called bundling. Before they were allowed to get married their marriage had to be pass by the leaders. After that they were allowed to have a small quiet wedding. The Puritans allowed people to get divorces if they wanted to.

African slaves on the other had a really simple marriage ceremony of jumping the broomstick.

For Quaker couples instead it was more difficult to get married, because they needed not only the permission of their parents but also the permission of the whole Quaker community.

They had to go through several steps before they could get married, but most women rejected the man at the last second. Due to this 16 percent of the women were single of the age of 50.

One of the restrictions on Quaker marriages were that could not marry your first cousin.

The Virginia marriages on the other hand allowed the first cousin marriages. The marriages were often made by the parents. For this reason not the love was required but the property of the man or the woman. 25 percent of males never married and if they did, they mostly were about 10 years older than the woman.

Marriages in the colonial age were a lot difficult than today.

- Yasmeen & Laura -

Women and Political Power

Countless American women played an important role in U.S. History. They stood up for their rights and the issues they believed in. They fought for their political power and for being accepted in politics.  

1770s - Protest against the british

American women participated strongly in the protests against the british conquerers. Some of them didn't use british material anymore, what was a little part of the protest, or they took more active roles, as Mary Goddard, a printer who printed the first copy of the Declaration of Independence.

1848

Women suffered from their unequal status in society, their lack of suffrage and that they weren't allowed to vote. 

In 1848, two great women - Elisabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott  founded the first women suffrage movement in the US. at the Seneca Falls, N.Y.

They demanded more rights for women pus the right to vote. 

1920 - Right to vote

Women started to demonstrate, to get the attention of the public for their problems so they would support the Amendment. 

In 1920, more than fifty years after the first demandment for more rights for women, the United States adopted the Nineteenth Amandment, which allowed women to vote.  

1972 - 1982 - Equal Right Movement

When women entered the workforce, they noticed, that there's still a lack of equal payment for equal work. 

Although many people supported the Equal Right Amendment, they feared it would prompt unwanted change. 

The Amendment failed to be ratified for the Constitution. 

2001 - Women in Congress

Many women have made their way into leading positions - politically as well as socially and economically. 

In the 107th Congress, 60 women served the House and 13 women served the Senate. 

by Miriam

American Women Gain Political Ground

Throughout American history, women have worked to gain political power, even during times when sexism was prevalent in America.
In the 1770s, when America was revolting to break free from British power, women were active in protesting however they could. For example, homemakers boycotted tea and British made clothing; some, like Sarah Morris Mifflin, spun their own thread or made other goods of their own.
Due to discontent with their lack of rights, women began to take action to gain ground. In 1848, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott launched America's first women suffrage movement at the Seneca Falls Convention in NY. At the convention, Stanton presented her Declaration of Sentiments, where she demanded greater rights for women, especially highlighting the right to vote. 50 years later, in 1920, women finally won their fight with the 19th amendment, which granted them their right to vote.
From 1972-1982, women had begun to join the work force and realized the inequality of pay between gender for the same amount of work. The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) they wanted called for the same social and economic rights as men. It failed to be ratified into the Constitution.
Despite the ERA not passing, many women achieved high positions politically, socially, and economically by 2001. In the 107th Congress, 60 women were in the House and 13 were in the Senate; for example, Washington senators Patty Murray and Maria Cantwell in 2000.
Over time, women's rights have progressively expanded and improved to reach equality. Today, women are as successful as men and have taken on an equal role in society in the USA.

--by Hannah and Mingming :)

Dred Scott V. Sandford -1857

By Cisca and Nick

Dred Scott was a slave from Missouri, whose master took him to Illinois. Illinois was a non-slave state. Dred Scott believed that because he was in free territory, that he was a free man. In 1854 Dred Scott sued the federal court for his freedom. He was ruled against, but appealed to the supreme court. Chief Justice Roger Taney wrote the courts decision that because Dred Scott was a slave, he was not a citizen, and could not even file a law suit. The Supreme Court also ruled that African Americans are not and never will be citizens. Dred Scott remained a slave.
This is important because it created social unrest to all slaves and it perminantely diminished their rights as human beings. Chief Justice Roger Taney claimed that if congress banned slavery, it is a violation of the fifth ammendment because they would be taking away someones property without due process of law. This case ended congressional efforts to ban slavery in the United States. This was one of the major stepping stones towards the civil war.
Other Justices of the Supreme Court (Justice John Mclean and Justice Benjamin Curtis) showed that the Supreme Court had the right to "make all needful rules and regulations" and that the U.S. and State Constitutions considered African Americans Citizens.

Women Throughout American History

Women have played important roles in the significant events that occurred throughout American history. During the 1770's, women boycotted tea and British-made clothing in order to protest against the British during the American Revolution. As the country developed, women grew aware of the inequality between men and women. So, in 1848, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott launched the first women's suffrage movement at the Seneca Falls Convention in New York. At the convention, Elizabeth Cady Stanton introduced the Declaration of Sentiments, which demanded greater rights for women. After more than 50 years of protesting and organizing, women finally won the right to vote when the Nineteenth Amendment was made. However, as women entered the workforce, another problem arose during the mid-1900s: unequal pay for equal work. In response, the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) was conceived. Although the ERA was supported by millions, many were afraid that the amendment would promote unwanted change. Thus, the ERA was not ratified for the Consitution. Despite the fact that the ERA was not ratified, women have achieved strong positions in America. In the 107th Congress (January 3, 2001 to January 3, 2003), 60 women were in the House of Representatives, and 13 women were in the Senate.

Written by Angela

Voting Rights

In 1789, only white, male property holders possessed the right to vote. Later, this population was extended to male taxpayers of twenty-one years of age, although some states allowed free African-Americans to vote.
In the 1870's, the admission of the Fifteenth Amendment guaranteed African-Americans the right to vote. However, they were discouraged by high, subjective poll taxes and literacy tests. The Poll taxes were eventually abolished in 1964 by the Twenty-Fourth Amendment and the literacy tests were suspended by the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Despite these improvements, there was still discrimination in terms of voting; women and Native Americans did not have the right to vote. In the early Twentieth Century, Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and many others pushed for women's suffrage, and held peaceful marches and parades to draw attention to the issue. After strenuous work, their efforts succeeded; the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified, allowing women to vote. Several years later, Native Americans also gained suffrage as well as citizenship.
By the late 1900's, most of the adult population had the right to vote. However, during the Vietnam War, people began to question the morals behind drafting eighteen year olds, yet denying them the right to vote. Soon thereafter, after the 26th Amendment was ratified, all eighteen year old citizens and above had the right to vote.

-Casey F., Grace M.

Welcome to the BLOG for U.S. History (A) 2009-10

Greetings to all!

This blog is a class project for U.S. History - period A.