1950’s Culture

Compared to another means of communication, television developed with lightning speed during the 1950’s and the 1960’s. At the beginning, it was a small box with round screen and broadcasts were in black and white. During the Post-World War II, other innovations appeared, like the microwave, for example. Although TV turned out to be wildly popular, radio and movies survived, and the number of radio stations increased by 50 percent. In the movies, stereophonic sound was introduced in 1952 and by 1954 more than 50 percent of movies were in color. 

During the 1950’s, the beat movement arose, expressing the social and literal nonconformity of artists, poets, and writers. Followers of this movement, called beats, lived nonconformist lives. They tended to shun regular work and sought a higher consciousness through Zen Buddhism, music, and drugs.

The musicians in the 1950’s added electronic instruments to traditional blues music, creating rhythm and blues. In 1951 a Cleveland radio disc jockey named Alan Freed to first play the music, and he called it rock’n’roll. After that, other artists, like Chuck Berry and Elvis Presley brought rock’n’roll to a frantic pitch of popularity among the newly affluent teens who bought their records.

Japanese Concentration Camps in America

During World War II, Japanese Americans and Japanese aliens were moved to assembly centers then to internment camps in 1942, after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. The Japanese American Internment was the relocation and internment of Japanese people forced by the United States government in 1942. Japanese and Japanese Americans(approximately 120,000) were forced to move into the "Wartime Relocation Camps"  of America. Japanese Americans who lived on the West Coast at that time were mostly interned. However, Japanese Americans who lived in Hawaii, on the other hand, were not subject to mass evacuation. Out of the 150,000 Japanese people composed of one-third of the population, only 1,444 were sent to internment camps. According to Japanese American Internment Camps by Gail Sakurai, it was due to cultural and economic reasons: "There was no mass relocation and internment in Hawaii, where the population was one-third Japanese American. It would have been impossible to transport that many people to the mainland, and the Hawaiian economy would have collapsed without Japanese American workers. " 62% of the Japanese who were interned were American citizens. 

The Executive Order 9066, authorized by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, allowed local military commanders to designate "military areas" as "exclusion zones."  The order required the removal of people of Japanese ancestry from California and parts of Washington, Oregon, and Arizona.

Many Japanese families sold their homes, businesses, and belonging for lower prices due to the relocation. Some families were even separated during it. 

Japanese Americans fought for justice in the courts and in Congress. Though the initial result wasn't good, the Japanese American Citizens League(JACL) pushed the government to compensate for the loss of those Japanese Americans who were interned after the war. In 1965, the Congress authorized the spending of $38 million, which was less than a tenth of their actual losses.

In 1978, the JACL demanded for the payment of reparation to each individual who was interned. On August 10, 1988, Congress passed and President Ronald Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, promising $20, 000 for every surviving former internee. The Act also apologized for the violation of constitutional right, provided a public educational fund to inform the public about the internment, and discouraged such violations of civil liberties in the future. 

Rosa Parks, a woman to remember

Rosa Parks was an unforgettable woman who changed history by standing up for what was right. Parks identified as an African American civil rights activist, later known as the mother of the American Civil Rights Movement. She changed the way people viewed African Americans, and served as an inspiration to act against the gross injustice in America during her time.
On December 1st, 1955 Rosa made a statement that would be forever remembered when on a bus she refused to move for a white man to sit. She was arrested and taken into custody for this action, because she had violated a city ordinance. The incident of her arrest led to outrage from civil rights leaders and later the formation of the Montgomery Improvement Association and a boycott on the bus company. In 1956, the Supreme Court finally outlawed bus segregation, a step towards the outlawing of segregation all together.
The rest of her life, Parks fought for civil liberties and the equality of all people. She worked with Martin Luther King Jr. in the Civil Rights Movement and was a boost the morale of colored people and those fighting for equality across American. She is a woman whose life we must cherish and remember, because without brave acts like hers, America would be very different.

"I worked on numerous cases with the NAACP," Mrs. Parks recalled, "but we did not get the publicity. There were cases of flogging, peonage, murder, and rape. We didn't seem to have too many successes. It was more a matter of trying to challenge the powers that be, and to let it be known that we did not wish to continue being second-class citizens."

McCarthyism

The phrase McCarthyism was first coined in the late 40’s to 50’s during the suspicious political climate against communists. The phrase refers to Senator Joseph McCarthy, a senator from Wisconsin, and his political tactics. McCarthy had a bad reputation for being an infected legislature, so he desperately tried to find an issue to capture the publics’ votes and become re-elected.

Being an anti-communist activist, McCarthy claimed that communists were taking over the government. Feeding off the publics’ fear of communism, McCarthy continued to make false accusations about communists in the government. These attacks on supposed communists became known as McCarthyism.

The meaning today is accusing others of treason with unsupported accusations. McCarthy claimed that up to 205 communists were in the State Department. He also bashed the Democratic Party for treason by allowing communists to infiltrate the government. He was careful to make his false claims in the Senate, where he had legal immunity.

Other republicans did not stop McCarthy, but when he made accusations against the army, the government issued an investigation on McCarthy. Shown as a criminal, McCarthy quickly lost public support. The Senate condemned him, and 3 years later, he died from the effects of too much alcohol.

-Felix, Kevin

Epic Battles of the Pacific

The attack of Pearl Harbor by the Japanese against the United States of America on December 7, 1941, caused a catastrophic turn of events which brought the United States into World War 2. The Japanese planned to attack Pearl Harbor because that was the major navel base during the time. By doing so, the Japanese expected to demolish the spirits of the US and diminish the US Navy so that the Japanese could further expand their empire into the Pacific. Japan flew 180 war planes into pearl Harbor, killing 2,400 Americans and sinking 21 ships. However, the Japanese did not succeed what they set out to accomplish, due to a few major errors in their calculations failing to destroy the aircraft carriers or the oil supplies. The US overthrew their policy of isolationism and joined forces with the allies to stop the Axis powers. Following Pearl Harbor, fights in the Pacific included the battles of Midway, Iwo Jima and the battle for Okinawa. The battle of Midway was a turning point in the Pacific war where the Allies started Island hopping and won each island individually, gaining ground in the defeat of the Japanese. Iwo Jima battle followed the Midway turning point, where the island of Iwo Jima was heavily guarded by 20,700 Japanese soldiers and more than 6,000 US marines died fighting to overcome the Japanese. The last battle fought in the Pacific was the battle Okinawa where Japanese unleashed more than 1900 kamikaze attacks sinking 30 ships and killing 5000 seamen, leading to the further surrender of Japan. These epic battles caused the beginning of the end of World War 2.

Space Program

Space Program

 

 

“ We Stand today on the edge of a New Frontier” Kennedy wanted to broaden his vision of progress in what he called the New Frontier which inspired the quote above.  Kennedy addressed Americans as “New Pioneer” and he wanted to explore “ uncharted areas of science and space”. After this speech Kennedy gave young engineers a challenge for the future, and a goal of sending a man to space. The dream that Kennedy was trying to achieve was difficult to accomplish because by 1960 America was in a recession.

On April 12, 1961 Soviet consmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin became the first human in space. Kennedy took this as a challenge, and proposed America to surpass the soviets by sending a man to the moon. In less than a month America had made a replica of the soviet fleet, later that year the communications satellite called Telstar sent live pictures across the world. NASA constructed new launch facilities at Cape Canaveral, Florida, and Houston, Texas, which would also be mission control. Seven years later, on July 20, 1969, the U.S would achieve its goal. People around the nation, watched US astronaut Neil Armstrong take his first steps on the moon. 

As a result of this famous achievement Universities extended their science, and space programs. Federal funding for research gave birth to new industries and also new consume good’s for the nation.

By: Da Vonnia, and Edoardo

 

           

 

Rosa Parks

Rosa Parks (1913-2005)

Born as Rosa Louise McCauley on February 4, 1913, in Tuskegee, Alabama, she grew up suffering from bad health and segregation of Blacks and Whites. Soon after her parents separated, she became an active member of the African Methodist Episcopal Church.

Since she lived in the South, the segregation was especially hard. The Jim Crow laws made it illegal for Blacks and Whites to be in the same part of bars, buses and basically every public place. Since high schools were public places, there was a white school and a black school, in which she didn't finish high school when she was young.

In 1932, she married Raymond Parks and her name changed to Rosa McCauley Parks. He was a member of NAACP and urged her to participate. With his support, she finished high school as one of less than 7% of African Americans in these days.

In December 1943, she became active in the Civil Rights Movement and soon was elected volunteer secretary of the president of NAACP. She was the only woman in the movement.

At about 6 pm on Thursday, December 1, 1955 in downtown montgomery, Rosa Parks would do something for what she would be always remembered.

She entered the bus to go home, she sat down in the first "black" row in the back of the bus, right behind the ten rows reserved for Whites only. When all the white seats were full and there were still white people coming, the bus driver moved the "black section" sign a few rows back and told the our black people who sat in the front to move. Three of them left. Rosa Park didn't. After she argumented with the driver, James Blake, he called the police an had her arrested. She was bailed out a few days later, but her action will always be remembered as a brave woman standing up for her rights.

-Miriam & Yasmeen

Japanese Concentration Camps in America

Following the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in December, 1941, was a wave of suspicion and hatred toward Japanese Americans. It didn't help that most Japanese Americans lived in the Pacific coast and Hawaii, where Pearl Harbor is located. This widespread fear and prejudice toward Japanese living in the US caused the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II.

In 1942, the War Department demanded an evacuation of all Japanese Americans living in Hawaii. The military governor of Hawaii, General Delos Emmons, opposed because the Japanese Americans were crucial to the economy of Hawaii, being a significant part of the population. However, he was forced later to confine some of the the Japanese Americans in concentration camps.

Also in 1942, President Roosevelt signed the order to relocate people of Japanese ancestry - American citizen or not - to concentration camps for "national security". People were paranoid that Japanese Americans would spy for Japan and help cause another major attack on the US. Most of the people confined to these camps were Nisei, or natural citizens (born in America) with Japanese immigrant parents, and many of them had already joined the army. They found it frustrating and ridiculous that they were stripped of their rights just for being of Japanese descent.

There were never any specific charges against the Japanese Americans and some fought for their rights, for example in the Supreme Court case Korematsu v. United States when Fred Korematsu refused to leave his home and then was charged for defying a military order. Despite their efforts, Japanese Americans were still rounded up and forced into the prison camps. After the war, the Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) worked to make the government compensate for the concentration camps and in 1965 and 1990, Congress finally allowed giving money to families who were in the camps.

by Nicky

Rise and Fall of Joseph McCarthy

Ever heard the word "McCarthyism"? McCarthysim is the accusation of others without evidence. It came from a time when a desperate man went on an anti-communist "witch hunt." Let's take a look at what happened.

Who?
Senator Joseph McCarthy was a republican senator from Wisconsin. The Senator was long known for being inefficient and thus needed a strong point behind his name for reelection in 1952.

When?
The McCarthy situation happened in the early 1950's, following WWII. At the time, fear of communism and the USSR spread like wild fire. America and USSR had begun their own attempts as superpowers to influence the nations of the world into following their respective strategies, democracy and socialistic communism. The U.S. was fighting the Korean war, and the ultimate conflict of the 20th century was looming: the Cold War.

What?
McCarthy was aware of the spreading fear and took advantage of this opportunity to support his own needs. He attempted to start an uproar against "potential communists" in the U.S. government. He then began to accuse senators and other various government officials of being communist or disloyal. Not only did he claim knowledge of communists in the government, but he went as far to blame the infiltration of communists on the democratic party itself.
The evidence against McCarthy was high. He claimed the number of communists in the government were, 57, 81 and 205, at different times! But which one was it?! Not only was he inconsistent with numbers, but he also could never provide a name. He never made his accusations outside the Senate, where he had legal immunity from slander. Ultimately, in 1954, he began accusing the military of communism.
Few republicans choose to speak out against McCarthy, for they believed that with his calumny and lies, he could help them win the next presidential election.

Aftermath
In 1954, the Senate began to investigate McCarthy's lies. As the investigation went on, and the truth became more clear, the media began revealed his boorishness by televising the investigation, and in doing so, alienated his public support. The Senate censured him on account of dishonesty and disreputation. Stripped of his position, he turned to alchohalism and died of the drug three years later. But even with McCarthy silenced, the fear of communisism lingered on.

Gayan and Cat

Women's roles during the war

While men were away at war, women were able to take action on the home front, and their assistance in the war effort would prove to be vital to the Allies success the success of America's economy.
Numbers of newly employed soared; 6 million women joined the work force during wartime, raising the percentage of women in the work force to an all time high of 35 percent. Many women found jobs as ordinance workers and in other war production industries. Many typical domestic jobs were abandoned for better paying work in defense plants. With men off at war, some also worked their way up in journalism and bus driving which were typically professions that men partook in.
General George Marshall began the Women's Auxillary Army Corps (WAAC) at the beginning of the war. This allowed for and hugely increased women volunteers working for the army in noncombat positions. Although women still did not recieve the same level of benefits as male soldiers, they did gain the same status and salary. Jobs they participated in included nursing, ambulence driving, pilots, and electricians.
War industries found that women did indeed have the stamina to work in factories welding torches and riveting guns. They also were cheaper laborers since factory women's salaries were not yet equal to those of male factory workers.
At home, women also remained strong for their husbands and their families. Their jobs were demanding and many had families to take care of in addition to their labor. Womens' strength during wartime changed America and the outcome of the war. Without the millions of women on the workforce and at home, World War II may have been very different. With their work, they helped America and gained respect and equality in society.

The Vietnam War

A Guerilla War

During the Cold War, the U.S. worked to stop the spread of communism. In the effort to do this, they started a campaign in Indochina largely based on communist fears. What they did not expect, was they would be fighting a war they could not win. The Vietnam War was the second of the Indochina wars and largely involved the communist North, against the allied South of Vietnam. Although the communists had little firepower, their guerrilla tactics and large numbers made them hard to find and kill. America largely relied on our Air Support to bomb northern Vietnam's cities. However much of these attacks were poorly planned, and casualties from both sides ensued. Ho Chi Minh, leader of communist Vietnam enacted the use of underground tunnels to transport people and intelligence behind enemy lines. Americas involvement in the war escalated in the 1960's and later tripled their troops within Vietnam in 1961, and again in 1962, eventually peaking in 1968. Over 3-4 million vietnames troops died form both sides of the war, and 58,169 American soldiers. In the later days of the war, much of Communist Vietnam was on the defensive. However America was losing a war with itself, back at home peace rallies and protests called for an end to the war. Ho-Chi-Minh used this to his advantage to spread Anti-American propaganda to the protesters further spreading the Anti-War attitude. This propaganda largely showed U.S. brutality in the killing of women and children, and the effects of napalm. Mounting resentment against the war forced withdrawal during 1973-1975. After the war, private American groups sent huge amounts of aid to Northern Vietnams largely communist areas. The communists used this to their advantage taking over much of the land they had lost in the south, do to the south's ruined economy. In a matter of years communist's had taken the whole of Vietnam.

By Jason and Marlin

Space Program

In 1957 the Space Race began between US and Soviet Union. On Oct 4th 1957 Russia launched the Sputnik satellite. Sputnik traveled around the earth at 18000 miles per hour, and circled the glob every 96 mins. It provided the first opportunity to detect meteoroid. On November 3, Sputnik II was launched, carrying a much heavier payload, than Sputnik I , including a dog named Laika.

Americans were shocked at the triumph of the Soviet Union. US scientists started working to catch up to the Soviets. The first attempt at the satellite launch failed resulting in the rocket falling to the ground. On January 31, 1958, the United States successfully launched Explorer I. This satellite discovered the magnetic radiation belts around the Earth.

On April 12th 1961, Soviets launched the first astronaut Yuri. A. Gagarin and he became the first person in space. In America NASA had begun new setup and launch facilities. As a result of this Space Program US was able to beat the Soviets to the moon, on July 20th 1969 Neil Armstrong was the first man on the moon.

The Battle of Midway

After attacking the Pearl Harbor by Japanese bombers on December 7^th, 1947, Japan receives declaration of war by the United State. The military commander of Japan suggested that U.S. required a long time to recover from the damage; however, the mobility of U.S. army surprised the Japanese commander. The U.S. was able to sent troops to the war shortly after the attack.

The U.S. stopped Japan’s invasion in several battle in Pacific Ocean such as Battle of the Coral Sea. In order to consolidate its advantage in Pacific ocean, Japan decided to attack Midway, a strategic island that laid North West of Hawaii. Fortunately, the U.S. deciphered the code and knew that the Midway would be the next target.

Out of Japan’s expectation, the U.S force demanded a surprising attack to Japanese fleets, which were on the way to the Midway Island, on June 3, 1942. The Unite State had sent numerous dive bomber and torpedo planes to the battle. As a result, Japan’s plan to attack Midway was a fiasco: four aircraft carriers, a cruiser, and over 250 planes were destroyed. The battle of Midway was described as a counterattack as well as a revenge for the Pearl Harbor. The U.S. newspaper described the victory on Midway as a revenge for attack on Pearl Harbor.

After the battle, Japan lost most of its marine force in Pacific Ocean, and the Allies began to fight back. Follow by several victories on the Pacific Ocean, the Allied force moved closer to Japan and eventually captured Iwo Jima.

The victory on the battle of Midway is the turning point of the Pacific War. On one hand, United State regained its confidence in Pacific warfare; on the other hand, it destroys the advantage of Japanese force in Pacific Ocean.

Japanese Concentration Camps

During World War II, the War Department implemented the confinement of thousands of Japanese Americans into internment camps. The order was issued in the terrified aftermath of the bombing of Pearl Harbor. Panicked citizens feared the Japanese would attack the United States, and prejudice against the Japanese increased exponentially. Despite the attacks upon them, Japanese Americans were too small a minority to resist.

The internment of Japanese Americans was mostly racially motivated. There were no specific charges made against the Japanese Americans, nor was there any evidence of disloyalty found. The Japanese were simply declared "un-assimilable" and still loyal to the Emperor of Japan. Many suspected them of spying for Japan and constantly questioned their loyalty. These sentiments were not limited to those who had been to Japan, but directed towards all with a Japanese ancestry.

The entire population of Japanese Americans in Hawaii were removed despite the detrimental effects on the economy. On the West coast, some 110,000 Japanese were forced to relocate to a number of concentration camps. About two-thirds of these were American citizens.

In December of 1944, the Supreme Court ruled the internment of Japanese Americans unconstitutional. Residents were allowed to return home and rebuild their old lives, though many internees lost much of their property in the exclusion process. In 1988, Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, which awarded $20,000 in reparations to surviving internees of the camps.

-Grace Mi

Major Events of the Pacific War

In World War II, the United States had to fight wars in many parts of the world. After the victory in Europe, the Pacific was the the next focus for America. Some major events in the Pacific War were: the Doolittle's Raid, the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Battle of Midway, the Battle of Guadacanal, the Battle in Leyte Gulf, Iwo Jima, the Battle of Okinawa, and Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Event One: Doolittle's Raid

On April 18, 1942, Lieutenant Colonel James Doolittle led sixteen bombers in a raid of Tokyo. This raid was the turning of the tide in the Pacific War. 

Event Two: Battle of the Coral Sea

In May 1942, the United States and the Australian troops succeeded in stopping Japan's drive toward Australia in five days. This was the first time since Pearl Harbor that a Japanese invasion had been stopped and turned back.

Event Three: Battle of Midway

On June 3, 1942, Admiral Chester Nimitz moved to defend the island of Midway, a strategic island northwest of Hawaii. Americans had broken the Japanese code and knew that they were going to attack the island. His scout planes found Japanese fleet and attacked them. This was another turning point in the war.

Event Four: Battle of Guadacanal

In August 1942, 19,000 Allied troops went to Guadacanal and fought the Japanese troops there. After six months, the Japanese troops abandoned the island. This was the first Japanese defeat on land.

Event Five: Battle of Leyte Gulf

Continuing to leapfrog from island to island, the next battle took place in the Philippines in 1944. Kamikaze planes were first used in this battle. Still, the Japanese suffered many damages. After this, the Imperial Navy only played a minor role in defense for Japan.

Event Six: Iwo Jima

Iwo Jima was the most heavily defended spot on Earth at this time period, and it was critical to the United States because it provided a base from which bombers can reach Japan. After the victory, the United States only had one island standing between the Allies and Japan: Okinawa.

Event Seven: Battle of Okinawa

In April 1945, the Allies battled with Japan on the island of Okinawa. The Allies faced even fiercer opposition than on Iwo Jima. With many losses on both sides, the fighting ended on June 21, 1945 with the Allies winning.

Event Eight: Hiroshima (Little Boy) and Nagasaki (Fat Man)

On August 6, 1945, Enola Gay dropped the atomic bomb, Little Boy, on the city of Hiroshima. Three days later, the atomic bomb, Fat Man, was released on Nagasaki because the Japanese leaders refused to surrender. Horrified by the atrocities, Emperor Hirohito ordered the Japanese leaders to surrender.

Event Nine: End of War

On September 2, 1945, the Japanese leaders formally surrendered on a United States battleship called Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

The end of the Pacific War marked the end of World War II. However, the end of the world led to the beginning of many other events. The Nuremberg War Trials put surviving Nazi leaders on trial for war crimes, and the United States occupied Japan for seven years. Also, the growing tension between the Soviet Union and the United States will lead to the Cold War.

 - Angela