Tuskegee Airmen

The 99^th pursuit Squadron was an all-back squadron of brave men, who played a mayor part in Italy fighting against the Germans. They were called the Tuskegee Airman. This squadron registered its first victory against an enemy aircraft, and created impressive strategic strikes against the German forces throughout Italy. The Tuskegee Airman won two distinguished Unit Citations (the military’s highest commendation) for their outstanding aerial combat against the German Luftwaffe. This group of one of many minorities groups who tried to help during the war, and made huge accomplishments throughout the war.

by edoardo

Japanese-Americans Confined during World War II

Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor shook the entire nation and caused panic in many citizens that Japan would strike again in the United States. Rumors began to spread around that Japanese Americans were sabotaging the U.S. in support of Japan. Because of this, Japanese Americans faced prejudice even if they were American citizens. In early 1942, the War Department ordered Japanese Americans to evacuate from Hawaii. However, General Emmons, the governor of Hawaii, refused the order because removing the Japanese Americans would destroy the economy and US military operations.

In February 1942, President Roosevelt signed an order requiring people of Japanese descent living on the West Coast to be removed and placed in “relocation centers”, which were essentially prison camps. Approximately 110,000 Japanese Americans were relocated, two-thirds of which were Nisei (of Japanese descent but born in the United States). The US military justified this step as necessary for national security.

Families were forced to sell their homes, businesses, and possessions for low value. The confinement camps were barren and isolated, and children were separated from their parents for most of the day with the exception of breakfast. Life within the barbed-wire fences was both tragic and terrifying. In the end, no specific charges were filed against any Japanese Americans, and no evidence of sabotage was ever found.

Because of the injustice they faced, Japanese Americans fought for a very long time for compensation. In Korematsu v. United States in 1944, the Supreme Court justified the evacuation of Japanese Americans as a “military necessity.”

The Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) pushed the government for restitution to everyone who faced internment. Finally, in 1990, a $20,000 check was sent to every Japanese American who was confined in a relocation camp.

“We can never fully right the wrongs of the past. But we can take a clear stand for justice and recognize that serious injustices were done to Japanese Americans during World War II.” –President George Bush

National Memorial in Washington, DC

-Mingming C.

Women in Wartime

During the WWII, America was in need of military work force. The Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall formed the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) in order to fulfill this demand. He said that there were many jobs that could be done better by women. Women volunteers would serve in noncombat positions under this bill.  Though there  was a lot of opposition from members of Congress, the bill establishing WAAC became law on May 15, 1942.  Women received salary though they didn’t have as many benefits as the male soldiers did. In July 1943, the U.S. Army dropped the “auxiliary” status, and the WACs started to receive full U.S. Army benefits. They served as nurses, ambulance drivers, radio operators, electricians , and pilots.

The defense contractors warned the Selective Service System that AMerica didn't have enough workers in the beginning of  WWII. However, they were proved wrong when nearly 18 million workers started contributing for the war in 1944. Out of the 18 million workers laboring in war industries, more than 6 millions were women. Factories thought that women did not have the strength to do physical work and were unwilling to hire them at first. However, when they realized that women operated machines as well as men, they started to hire a lot of women. Women had proved that they could do jobs and contribute to the nation as well as men did.

 

Harry Truman’s Presidency

               Harry S. Truman was born in 1884 in the state of Missouri. After the WW I, he invested in a men clothing store, but the business failed and he sought a career in politics. His blunt and outspoken style won both loyal friends and bitter enemies. As president, his decisiveness and willingness to accept responsibility for his decisions earned him respect that has grown over the years. 

              Truman put his presidency on the line for civil rights, and in 1946 created a President’s Commission on Civil Rights. Following the group’s recommendations, he asked Congress for several measures, including a federal antilynching law, but Congress refused to pass the measures. In 1948, he issued an executive order for integration of the armed forces and ordered an end to discrimination in the hiring of government employees. Although many Americans blamed Truman for the nation’s inflation and labor unrest, he won the elections in 1948. Congress raised the hourly minimum wage from 40 cents to 75 cents, extended Social Security coverage to about 10 million more people and initiated flood control an irrigation projects.

              Despite some social and economic measures (Fair Deal, an extension of Roosevelt’s New Deal, for example), Truman’s approval rating sank to an all-time low of 23 percent in 1951.

Rosa Parks

Rosa Parks, is known as the "mother of the civil rights movement". She was one of the most important citizens of the 20th century. Rosa Parks lived in Montgomery, Alabama, at the time of her righteous act. In December of 1955, she refused to give up her seat on a city bus to a white passenger could sit down. The bus driver had her arrested, for basically not being "nice" to a white passenger. Rosa Parks was convicted of violating a local ordinance.

Her act inspired a citywide boycott of the bus system by blacks that lasted more than a year.This really hurt the bus system considering that blacks were the main people to ride the bus. AS a result of this boycottt Martin Luther King, Jr, started to speak out for black all over the south. The U.S. Supreme Court decision outlawing segregation on city buses. Over the next four decades, she helped make her fellow Americans aware of the history of the civil rights struggle. This pioneer in the struggle for racial equality was the recipient of some honors, including the Martin Luther King Jr. Nonviolent Peace Prize and the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

Rosa Parks, Woman of Soltitude

Rosa Parks was an outstanding woman who did not give in to the pressures of society and stood up, or in this case stayed seated, for what she believed in. December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks a seamstress and an NAACP officer sat in the front row of a public bus. The bus began to fill up and even though the law was that African Americans had to move to the back when white people needed room, she remain seated. After warning Rosa Parks that she was violating segregation laws, the bus driver called the police to notify them of Ms. Parks actions. She was later convicted and brought to jail. This was the turning point of segregation because it began a chain reaction for African Americans around the United States to stand up for themselves and boycott segregation. Rosa Pars and her case led to the Brown v Board supreme court case which was one of the most important cases of all time for the abolishment of segregation where the Court overturned parts of Plessy v Fergessen and began to accept that seperate-but-equal was unconstitutional. Although it took many years after that to completely overcome discrimination of the African American race, Rosa Parks and her courage led to the advancement of black people. It took many decades to abolish segregation in the US but trough determination, moral integrity and unity for these laws to be overturned and for society to begin accepting people not for their race but for who they are.

Journey to the New Frontier

Space Program:



April 12, 1961 was the first time a human was sent into space. This project was launched by soviets. Kennedy saw this soviet advance in science as a challenge between capitalism and communism. He wanted to surpass the soviets by placing a man on the moon. With the drive of competition, the United States sent a man on the moon within a month. Americans also sent a satellite into space named the Telstar, which relayed television pictures across the world. NASA began constructing launch facilities in Florida and an admission control center in Texas. The Americans caught up to the Soviets in the space race, and national pride was restored.

Seven Years later, on July 20th 1969, the U.S watched astronaut Neil Armstrong take his first steps on the moon. As a result of the space race, space programs increased and universities advanced their science programs. Funding paid for new industries and technology.

-Felix, Kevin

Women in Wartime

Women played a large role both at home and on the front during World War II. On May 15, 1942, the Women's Auxiliary Army Corps was established. This gave members status and salary, but fewer benefits than male soldiers. The WAAC was comprised of women volunteers that served in noncombat positions. Later, in July 1943, the 'auxiliary' status was dropped, and WACs were granted all the Army benefits. Women in the WAC worked as nurses, ambulance drivers, radio operators, electricians, and pilots, but did not participate in any direct combat.

Due to the war, industries and other businesses were short of male workers. Contractors then began to hire women to work in factories, though many believed that women lacked the stamina to work in factories. But when women proved themselves capable for the job, the number of female workers increased to 6 million, about a third of the workers in the United States. Despite these gains, women still earned sixty percent of what men earned.

Grace

1950's Culture

During 1950's the economy boomed and many Americans enjoyed material comfort. The business expanded rapidly, economy prospered, and new technologies and business ideas created opportunities for many Americans.

More people worked at higher paid jobs than ever before, especially in sales and advertising. Franchises were born and companies started to mass produce. Mcdonalds, for example was one of the biggest franchises in the 50's, mass producing hamburgers at 15 cents each. Large corporates and a board of directors were brought about in the business world. Xerox, American telephone and telegraph, and General Electric were a few of the major companies.

Americans enjoyed the highest level of living in the world. Franchises standardized the way of living. Most Americans also had stable jobs and steady income. Employees worked 40 hour weeks, and earned several weeks vacation per year. Most Americans worked in cities, but few lived in them. Due to highways and affordable automobiles, suburban lifestyle was ideal for Americans. The suburbs embodied the American dream of affordable single family housing, good schools, and a safe and healthy environment for children. Most people owned dishwashers, dryers and power lawnmowers. These labor saving devices allowed more time for recreational activities. More fans attended football and baseball games and others watched on tv sets.

Radical Rosa!

Personal Backstory
Born 1913, Rosa Parks was an African-American activist for the Civil Rights movement. A seamstress and an officer for the NAACP, she often protested against everyday segregation. For example, she refused to use segregated drinking fountains and elevators. Parks began her activism in the Civil Rights Movement when she began working as a secretary of the Montgomery division of the NAACP in 1943. But her fights for equality did not stop there.

What was going in her Time
During the time Rosa Parks became more involved in the Civil Rights Movement, things began to change. The Brown vs Board of Education case was setteled and outlawed segregation in schools. Four days following the Brown vs Board of Education decision, the mayor of Montgomery was asked to desegregate the Bus system, but he refused. This set the stage for Rosa Parks' famous protest!

The Protest
Rose Parks disagreed with the mayors decision and was not afraid to show it. On December 1st, 1955, Ms Parks sat in the colored on a crowded Montgomery bus. When a white man requested to be seated away from any African-Americans, Ms Parks and her friends were asked to vacate the rows and move to the back of the bus. Ms Parks refused to comply and to let her herself to be treated as a second class citizen. She remained in her seat. Parks was then arrested for her "act of disobiedence".
As news of her arrest spread, leaders of the African-American community started the Montgomery Improvement Association, headed by a young Martin Luther King, Jr. He and other leaders like Jo Ann Robinson and NAACP leader E.D. Nixon planned a boycott on the bus system. They planned car pooling and had people walk instead of drive for 381 days. Support from the United Auto Workers, Montgomery's Jewish Community, and sympathetic White southerners lead to the 1956 outlaw of bus segregation by the Supreme Court.

Later Life

Rosa Parks became a symbol of the civil rights movement, and both gained and suffered from her position. She was often fired from jobs by racist store owners, for example. Later, she worked in Congress as a secretary. She died of progressive dementia on October 24, 2005 and was given a 7 hour long funeral for her meritous life before her burial at Detroit's Woodlawn Cemetery.


Cat Volpe
Gayan

Japanese Concentration Camps in America

During World War II, many citizens of the United States were panic-stricken after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. This panic turned into fear of the Japanese-Americans, thus leading to the Japanese internment camps.

Early in 1942, the War Department called for a mass evacuation of all Japanese-Americans in Hawaii. However, since Japanese-Americans made up 34% of the population in Hawaii, General Delos Emmons, the military governor of Hawaii, was able to negotiate and turn in only 1% of Hawaii's Japanese-American population. 

On the West Coast, however, only 1% of the population in California was Japanese. Along with prejudice and fear, the fact that the Japanese was only a small minority in the state caused them to be unable to resist internment. 

On February 9, 1942, Franklin Roosevelt, president at that time, signed an order requiring the removal of Japanese-Americans from California, parts of Washington, Oregon, and Arizona. He justified this action as necessary for national security. Japanese-Americans were only a short time to pack up their belongings and move to the internment camps. Japanese-Americans who joined the 442nd Regiment were the only ones who were able to avoid the internment. However, their families and friends were all in the camps.

In the end, no specific charges were filed against Japanese-Americans, and no evidence of corruption was ever found. During and after the war, the Japanese-Americans fought for reparations. In 1944, the Supreme Court justified that the government's policy of internment was necessary when deciding on Korematsu v. United States. In 1965, Congress authorized $38 million for the government to spend on compensation for lost property of the Japanese. In the 1980s, President Ronald Reagan signed a bill that promised $20,000 to every Japanese American sent to a relocation camp. 

However, the reparations were not enough to pay for the losses of the Japanese since the $20,000 lost value as time went by. The only thing the government can do is prevent the occurrence of another mass internment of a minority group.

- Angela 

Women in Wartime

The US threw their all into the war effort for World War II. Everyone joined in - men, women, and even children. Of course the men were important for the war effort, making up the army, but women were essential for the war effort, too.

When the war started and factories were changed to boost war production, there needed to be many workers to build ships and supplies efficiently and quickly. Because the draft took away many men for the war, more than 6 million of the almost 18 million workers in war industries were women. The factories were skeptical at first, thinking that women would only slow them down for lack of stamina. However, the hired women workers soon proved their fears unfounded by determinedly showing how well they could work - as well as men. After that, industries hired more and more women, seeing how good they could work and seeing how women were paid only 60% of what men were paid for the same work.

Non-working women contributed too, with rationing and participating in nationwide drives. Housewives and their children would find scrap iron, tin cans, rags, cooking fat, etc. in their houses and donate them to the drives that that War Production Board (WPB) organized to collect things to recycle for war production. Besides nationwide drives, housewives contributed to the war effort by rationing goods like meat, shoes, sugar, coffee, and gasoline for cars. The Office of Price Administration (OPA) handed out little coupon books that people would use to buy the scarce goods. Since housewives ran the domestic scene, they dealt with the rationing.

by Nicky

The Tuskegee Airmen

Tuskegee Airmen

During World War II, many African Americans were subject to the Jim Crow laws—locally established laws which held poorer treatments for African Americans—and therefore suffered racial segregation. Such separation was evident in the American military, as separate units and divisions were created for African Americans, as well as other minorities. One of the most prominent divisions was the Tuskegee Airmen, a unit of African American combat pilots who were part of the 332^nd fighter group.

The Tuskegee Airmen first earned their fame through in Sicily, where the Allies launched their invasion against Italy, resulting in Benito Mussolini’s resignation. After registering their first victory against enemy aircrafts did the Tuskegee Airmen get their names known by the public. After their first triumph, the Tuskegee Airmen continued to impress America by their several victories against the German Luftwaffe. As a reward for their exceptional aerial combat, the Tuskegee Airmen received two Distinguished Unit Citations, as the military’s highest commendations.

Not only did the Tuskegee Airmen receive fame for their brilliant work, but they helped ease the tensions of the prejudice and segregation. By ignoring the criticism they faced upon establishment, the Tuskegee Airmen were able to successfully complete their missions, and earn their names as American heroes.





Written by-Marlin and Jason
March 2, 2010 Period A

McCarthyism

During the 1950s, a fear of communism had spread around the world. People in United State feared that the communist would take over the government. At this time, Joseph McCarthy started his “witch hunt” to the communist.
As a senator with undistinguished achievement, Joseph McCarthy wanted to take advantage of people’s fear in order to get reelected in 1952. In 1950, he declared that he had a list of members of communists who were employed in the State Department. Although he had never produce a singe name, he rose to a national fame. He had also accused the Democratic Party for allowing communist infiltration into the government.
Because the attack on the communist and the Democratic might help the republicans win the 1952 presidential election, few Republicans spoke out to stop McCarthy’s attack. As their wish, the republican Dwight Eisenhower won the 1952 presidential election.
McCarthy successfully accused the State Department, the administration of President Truman, and the United State Army. In 1954, McCarthy experienced his downfall as he accused U.S. Army of coddling Communist. Millions of American watched McCarthy malign people with no defense from television. McCarthyism became a term which stands for making accusations without proper regard for evidence. Also in 1954, McCarthy was disciplined due to the vote of senate.

Japanese Concentration Camps in America

After Pearl Harbor in 1941, American citizens became fearful that the Japanese would attack America. This was shown in everyday life: American citizens with Japanese ancestry were treated like an enemy, ignored and feared, even though they didn't do anything. FDR signed the executive order 9066 in February 1942. It said that every American citizen could be removed and replaced for their own protection. Very soon people found out that "everyone" were only people with Japanese background.

In the weeks after the order was signed, the military relocated over 110 000 Japanese Americans and put them in "relocation centers" aka prison camps. They had to leave everything they owned behind. They sold their houses and shops and packed as much furniture as possible to take with them. But they lost everything. A lot of these people were born in the States and legal citizens and most of them were loyal to the US.They showed it by volunteering for the war in Japan. Many of them never returned home, because they believed to do the right thing, but the Military just used them. When they came home and expected to be treated like war heroes, they soon discovered that the opposite was occurring.

There were no legal charges ever filed against the imprisoned people and no evidence of subversion was ever found. Most of these American citizen were forced to sell everything they owned: houses, businesses and most of their belongings.

The Japanese American Citizen League fought for justice in a lot of cases. In 1965; Congress gave $38 million for their purpose. A lot of Japanese Americans went to court, but the court rejected them with the argument, that these camps were a basis of “military necessity”.

In 1978, Ronald Reagan signed a bill promising $20 000 for every Japanese American in the camps who are still living. For imprisoned people who had already died, the family got nothing. But these checks were sent in 1990 with an apologetic letter from President George Bush senior. That shows how much the country cares for its history.