Reaching the Limit

Rosa Parks was an African American civil rights activist. She was born on February 4, 1913. She was most known for her refusal to obey bus orders on December 1^st, 1955. She was boarding a bus in Montgomery, Alabama when the bus driver James Blake ordered her to get in the back of the bus. This was to make room for a white passenger who had just entered the bus. Parks allowed the bus driver to call the police and she was arrested. According to Parks, she was not physically tired. Instead, she was tired of giving in and being treated unfairly. After the news of her arrest spread, the NAACP leader E. D. Nixon and Jo Ann Robinson suggested a bus boycott with the support of African-American community. As a result, the Montgomery Improvement Association was formed to boycott riding on any Montgomery Bus.

The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a significant part of the civil rights movement, and was led by Martin Luther King. The bus boycotts in Montgomery sparked protests all around the country. There were sit-ins, eat-ins, and other similar acts of peaceful protest. Thousands came together to demand equal rights for all people. The bus boycott lasted for 381 days. It became so heated that on December 20^th, 1956, the United States Supreme Court declared the Montgomery Laws of segregation on buses to be unconstitutional.

This milestone for the modern civil rights movement made Parks an icon for the fight against segregation. Congress has even called Parks the “Mother for the Modern-day Civil Rights Movement.” It had international influence and was the inspiration for other boycotts in towns such as Alexandria and Eastern Cape of South Africa.

Rosa Parks still has quite the legacy. She holds forty-three honorary degrees. She has received the Medal of Freedom, the highest award given to a civilian. She has received many more awards and has had quite a number of things named after her. Rosa Parks died October 24, 2005, but left her influence.

Her passionate act of resistance was sparked by life-long oppression. Through all this mistreatment, she has “reached the limit” of tolerance for racial segregation, and defiantly disobeyed Alabama state laws. Her quiet courageous act changed America, its view of black people and redirected the course of history.

- Kevin and Felix

Mother's Day

Earn an A.G.C. by doing something SPECIAL for your mom, or aunt, or grandma on Mother's Day. Write her a poem, make her breakfast, make a card for her. She will cherish it.
Ask mom to email me to let me know what you did for her on Mother's Day.
Send email message to msanderson@pausd.org.

McCarthyism

Joseph McCarthy was a politician who served as a Republican Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 to 1957. In January 1950, he realized that he would need a winning issue in order to be reelected in 1952 since he was known as an ineffective legislator in his first 3 years in the Senate. He then decided to charge that Communism was taking over the government. He accused others of being communists without giving specific evidence. His attacks were known as McCarthyism. "McCarthyism" is referred to the unfair tactic of accusing people of disloyalty without providing evidence since the 1950s. He claimed that he had the names of communists in the Senate though he never produced any. People who were accused of being communists suffered from the loss of employment, destruction of career, and imprisonment.

Republicans didn't do much to stop McCarthy, hoping that they would win the 1952 election because of him. However, McCarthy's accusations against the U.S. Army resulted in nationally televised Senate investigation in 1954, which led to his downfall. His bullying of witnesses costed him public support. He was censured by the Senate for his improper conduct. He died from alcoholism three years later. 

Rosa Parks

Rosa Parks

"It was time for someone to stand up - or in my case, sit down"

Rosa Parks was born in Tuskegee, Alabama on February 4, 1913 and since she was very young, she didn't feel like she could ignore racism and she became determined to fight segregation. Long before December 1955, when she was arrested, Parks had protested segregation through everyday acts. She refused to use drinking fountains labeled "colored only". When possible, she shunned segregated elevators and climbed stairs instead.
Parks joined the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP in 1943 and became the organization's secretary. In the summer of 1955, she attended a workshop designated to promote integration by giving students the experience of interracial living.
On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks refused to obey a bus driver`s order that she give up her seat to make room for a white passenger. The act became an important symbol of the Modern Civil Rights Movement and Parks became an international icon of resistance to racial segregation. She organized and collaborated with civil rights leaders, including Martin Luther King Jr., helping to launch him to national prominence in the civil rights movement.
Parks resided in Detroit until she died of natural causes at the age of 92 on October 24, 2005.

McCarthyism—Unjustified Slander


Joseph McCarthy, a Republican Senator of Wisconsin, was one of the most famous anti-Communist activists of the Cold War era. By creating slandering other government officials, he wished to secure his position as Senator in the reelction of 1952. However, his extreme accusations eventually lead the public to oppose his beliefs, which eventually lead to his downfall.

Known to be an inefficient legislator, during his first term in Senate, McCarthy searched for an issue to focus on, to increase support for his campaign. Considering America's paranoia for communist takeover, McCarthy made accustaions about government officials, falsely claiming them to be communist supporters. These accusations, later labled as "McCarthyism", were at first, unnnoticed by the public. He claimed to have the names of 57, 81, then 205 Communist supporters within the state department, though none of these accusations were supported. He was cautious to only make accusations within the Senate, in order to secure his immunity within his position. The Republican party, at first, made no effort to hinder McCarthy's accusations about the other government officials, for they believed they could win the1952 Presidential election despite McCarthy's criticism.

McCarthy's immunity was snuffed in 1954, after he made accusations against the US Army. This resulted in a televised investigation. His unsupported accusations eventually costed him public support; the Senate denounced him for "improper conduct". Three years later, he died.

Written By: Marlin

War in Vietnam

After France surrendered and retreated from Vietnam in 1954, U.S., Soviet Union, and other 4 countries signed the Geneva Record, a peace agreement.

According to the Geneva record, Vietnam was divided into South and North along the 17th parallel. Afraid of losing, the South Vietnam president who is also a strong anti-communist, refused to take part in the 1956 election. Willing to halt the spread the communism, the United States supported South Vietnam.

Although the Geneva Record temporarily ceased the fire, the war in Vietnam had just begun. Vietcong, a communist opposition group supported by North Vietnam, raised power in the South in 1957. After the president of South Vietnam was assassinated in 1963, the South Vietnam fall into anarchy. Instead of withdrawing its troops from Vietnam, the U.S. expended the conflict. President Johnson decided to send more troops to Vietnam in order to end the war sooner. In 1968, the number of U.S. military personnel in Vietnam reached about 53600. However, the Vietcong used hit-and-run tactic and guerrilla warfare to fight the U.S. well-armed forces. In response to Vietcong’s attack, President Johnson approved the operation Rolling Thunder, an aerial bombardment campaign. While the bombing attack caused great damage to Vietcong and other opponents, more than 58000 Americans, in total, are killed.

The long-lasting war caused the downfall of President Johnson’s popularity. In 1969, President Nixon, newly elected Republican President, began the withdrawal of U.S. troops in Vietnam. The American’s longest war eventually came to an end.

Space Program

 

            In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the first space satellite into space called Sputnik. American was in a race to catch up to the Soviets and launch their own satellite into space. The started pouring money into the space program in order to catch up with them. On January 31, 1958 the United States successfully launched its first satellite into space.           

            On April 12,1961 the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin became the first human in space. Kennedy took the opportunity as a challenge and decided that they would do better then the Soviets and send a man to the moon. Later that year a communication satellite called Telstar relayed live television pictures across the Atlantic Ocean. The United States was passing the Soviets fast. NASA began building new launch pads in Cap Canaveral, Florida and they set up a control center in Houston, Texas.

            Seven years later the United States reached its goal on July 20, 1969. Neil Armstrong was the first man to walk on the moon. Universities started putting more money into their science programs. Huge funding for the research and development created new industries and technologies. The space and science programs started growing rapidly.

 

 

    -Yasmeen

 

King and the Washington March

August 28, 1963 was a day that would go down in history as one of the most important days in our nation's history. It was the day that over 250,000 people, both black and white, marched to our nation's capital, Washington D.C. in protest of segregation and racism. The man who led this march was a preacher from Alabama; Martin Luther King Jr. Hand in hand with peace and love all around, they marched to the Lincoln memorial. This is where King gave one of the most influential and important speeches that any man has ever given in the history of this nation, the "I Have a Dream" speech. This speech enlightened every person that had to courage to stand up against the evil of racism and segregation and do what's right in the world.  The main point of the march was not only to protest racism and promote equality, but for congress to pass the Civil Rights bill, giving equal rights to everyone across the U.S.A. 

Space Race

During his acceptance speech for his nomination of presidency, President John F. Kennedy called on Americans to be "new pioneers" and explore the "uncharted areas of science and space." Kennedy's speech was sparked by the achievement of the Soviet Union. On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin became the first human in space. This caused surprise and displeasure for the American citizens, since the Soviet Union is catching up to the United States' level of technology. However, Kennedy viewed this achievement as a challenge for the Americans to overcome. In fact, the president wanted to surpass the challenge and pursue an even greater feat: land on the moon.

Many things were done to expand the space program in the United States. Universities expanded their science programs while space-related industries sprang up in Southern and Western states. Less than a month after Yuri A. Gagarin's journey, the United States also went into space. Later, a communications satellite named Telstar released pictures of the Atlantic Ocean for the public to view. NASA also constructed new launch facilities in Florida and a mission control center in Houston, Texas. Finally, on July 20, 1969, Kennedy's goal was achieved. Neil Armstrong became the first man on the moon. After this achievement, America's pride and prestige has been restored.

- Angela

Martin Luther King Jr. and the Washington March

Martin Luther King Jr is one of the most influential and inspirational man to have ever existed. He has given motivational speeches across American and has led many protests for the cause of the civil rights movement. He became a prominent leader of the black freedom movement and gathered a followed of black and white people across America. On August 28th, 1963 Martin Luther King Jr had led a march on Washington DC which included more that 250000 people and in that, 75000 of them were white. They march on the capitol and gathered around the Lincoln Memorial. 

Civil Rights activists Bayard Rustin (of the SCLC) and A Philip Randolph organized and helped gather people. The point of the movement was to further the civil rights movement and to pass the new civil Rights bill that President Kennedy sent to Congress. President Kennedy sent this bill in order to guarantee equal access to all public accommodation and for the U.S. attourney General to have the power to file segregation suites. 

After the assacination of President Kennedy, President Johnson who was the Vice President for Kennedy, became president and vowed to further President Kennedy's ideas in the civil rights movemnt. Two months later the civil rights bill passed.

 Martin Luther King gave hope to the people of America and fought fervently for the equality of African Americans. This in turn caused the turning point in the civil rights movement. 

The Truman Times

Who is Truman?
Harru S. Truman a senator from Missouri, who was well known for being honorable and confident. As the 33rd president of the United States, he maintained the presidency from 1945-1953 as a democrat. His presidency came as a sudden shock when in 1945, current president Franklin D Roosevelt died of a stroke. As FDR's vice president, Truman took the reigns of presidency and inherited the duties and problems of World War II.

What Did He Do?
By the time of Truman's ascension, Germany and Italy had already surrendered to the Allies, leaving Japan the only enemies to the U.S. in the war. The Japenese had been removed from all the pacific islands, and it seemed the only way to end the war was to invade Japan itself. However, this was a strategdy Truman did not want to follow. He instead decided to use the revently developed atomic bombs to attack the major Japenese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This decision lead the Empeoror of Japan to surrender and ultimately end the World War.

Besides ending the greatest war since the first World War, Truman faced the task of revitilizing the post war economy. Due to high prices and low wages (because the lack of war demand) over 4 million workers went on strike. Truman threatened to draft the workers and sieze control of all of the opposing industries, which lead the unions to bitterly give in. At the time, this angered many citizens, causing them to lose trust in Truman and eventually sway to voters to elect republican senators in 1946.

Risking an even lower drop in popularity, Truman selflessly supported the Civil Rights Movement in 1946. He openly expressed his support by addressing equality for all human beings in many of his speeches and creating a President's Commision on Civil Rights. Through the commision, Truman began asking Congress to create a federal antilynching law, ban on poll taxes, and a permanent civil rights commision. The now Republican heavy Congress did not share his ideals and refused to pass many of the bills. As a result, he began executive orders in 1948, to begin integration as protected by armed forces

By the time of 1948 election, the rising inflation and Truman's focus on civil rights lead the a group of right wing Southern "Dixiecrats" to form the States' Rights Democratic Party and nominate candidate. At the same time, a more liberal Democrat group, the Progressive Party, also rose and was headed by former VP Henry A. Wallace. This division gave the Republican candidate, New York Governor Dewey a big lead. However, Truman was prepared. He challenged the Republican dominated congress to pass a record number of reform bills (from federal education aid to extended Social security), which, as he expected , failed to pass. Then, he was able to campaign under the denouncement of a "do-nothing" congress. This tricky move not only gave Truman an extremely close win but returned Congress to the democrats. However, it permanently turned many Southern states, traditionally Democrat, into republican strongholds.

During his second term, Truman proposed a series of economic programs called the Fair Deal, a reference to FDR's own New Deal. It included plans for health insurance and crop subsidies, but nearly everyone in congress rejected the measures. However, he did manage to have the minimum wage practically doubled-- 40 cents to 75. He extended Social Security to millions more and began many flood and irrigation projects.

Truman sets the Stage

Perhaps the most important parts of Truman's presidency were the decisions he made toward the Cold War; his choices shaped US actions for decades to come.

At the Potsdam conference in July 1945, Truman met with Clement Attlee, Britain's prime minister, and the Soviet dictator, Joseph Stalin. There, he learned both of Stalin's refusal to keep free elections in post-war, Soviet occupied regions, as well as the plan to take massive reparations from its sections of Germany. When Truman attempted to push to renewal of trade to Eastern Europe, the USSR increased its barriers against the west, setting up a series of easily dominated satellite nations.

In response, Truman and the American diplomat to Moscow, George Kennan, began a policy of containment, the policy of preventing extension of communist rule. This was later exemplified in the Truman Doctrine, in which America provided economic and military aid to support free peoples resisted outside pressures. Specifically, the aid to Western Europe was called the Marshall plan; through $13 billion in aid, Western Europe was easily brought over to the side of America and Britain.

Further conflicts during the early cold war were handled by Truman. He helped oversee the Berlin Airlift, the flight of supplies to a USSR-blockaded Berlin, which boosted the American reputation. NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organization) created a set of allies in Western Europe against the USSR (which formed its own alliance, the Warsaw pact, with its satellites).

One of the last (and most flawed) actions of the Truman presidency was the Korean War. Following the fall of the corrupt but US supported China to communist leader Mao Zedong (during which fight Truman refused military aid), America become committed to keeping communism out of South Korea. North Korea, as influenced by its northern neighbor, was communist, and its leaders wanted to unite the two nations under communism. The US, originally more removed from the region in post-World war times, petitioned to the UN security council, and troops were sent from the UN to bolster the Souther Korean fight. Despite the work of General MacArthur, the famous Pacific War general, the later entrance of the Chinese to the war lead to an eventual stalemate across the original boundary, the 38th parallel. When MacArthur recommend attacking China with nuclear weapons, Truman fired the hero, causing another plummet in his popularity. 54,000 American casualties and $67 billion later, Korea was still two nations.

After Truman

In 1952, the next election year, America chose the first republican president in 20 years, Dwight D. Eisenhower. Leaving the Presidency, Truman may have had abysmal approval ratings, but today, we can see that he was on of the most influential Presidents in our history.

The Vietnam War

In 1954, the Geneva Accords temporarily divided Vietnam along the 17th parallel so that the north was controlled by the communists and the south was controlled by anticommunist nationalists.In 1956, an election for unifying Vietnam was considered but due to the tensions between the north and the south, it didn't occur. In the south, a communist group against the South Vietnam government began to attack the government in 1957. They were called the Vietcong.

The United States became involved in the civil war that broke out between the north and Vietcong and the south because the United States government felt it was their duty to actively work to contain communism around the world, especially during this time, which was in the height of the Cold War. They aided South Vietnam against the communist north and the Vietcong, stating that according to the domino theory, when one country falls to communism, the countries around it also fall, like in a game of dominoes.

The United States started sending in money and military advisors to Vietnam under President Kennedy but it was his successor, President Johnson who expanded the military involvement of the United States in Vietnam. President Johnson, or LBJ as he was called, was certain the United States would be able to quickly win the war. However, he severely underestimated the enemy. The Vietnamese had the advantage of being in their home front - they were familiar with the forest terrains where they could easily hide and attack secretly whereas the American soldiers were new to the land. The guerilla tactics used by the Vietcong, as well as their networks of tunnels throughout the country were an advantage to the communists. In addition, the American soldiers had a hard time distinguishing friend versus foe since both sides of the civil war were Vietnamese.

Incorrect information in the White House and small lies with big consequences brought the United States deeper into the war. An American ship, the USS Maddox was fired on in the Gulf of Tonkin off the coast of Norht Vietnam. When it and anther ship returned to enemy territory once again, they crew thought they were beign attacked and retaliated. President Johnson used this incident, not knowing that in reality, the two ships weren't attacked, to get Congress of pass the Tokin Gulf Resolution that gave the president the military ability to do anything short of actually declaring war.

Eventually, the sinking morale of the soldiers, the many casualties on both sides, the suffering of United States economy for a war on the other side of the world, and the bad media from the United States agaisnt the American involvement in the war caused President Johnson to work to pull their troops out of the war. The United States finally ended their involvement under President Nixon in 1973 after a few years of slowly decreasing their activity to leave with "honor" and "dignity" and not like they were being chased out.

by Nicky

Vietnam War

From the late 1800s until WWII, the French ruled most of Indochina, including Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia. the tension increased when the french took away freedom of speech, public assembly and jailed many Vietnamese nationalists. During the French retreat, America intervened and assisted the french. The Eisenhower and Kennedy administration provided economic and military aid to South Vietnam. The South's president, Ngo Dinh Diem, was given financial aid and thousands of American troops to train the Vietnamese. By the end of 1963, there were more than 16000 American advisers in Vietnam.
Shortly before his death, Kennedy announced his plan to withdraw U.S. forces from Vietnam. "in the final analysis, it's their war. However, President Johnson escalated the nation's role in Vietnam and eventually began America's longest war. Johnson believed that communist takeover of South Vietnam would be disastrous. In the years following 1965, Johnson began sending large numbers of troops to fight the North Vietnamese.
Working with the Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara and Secretary of State, Dean Rusk, Johnson sent thousands more U.S. soldiers to Vietnam. The conflict was simply getting out of hand.
Protests against the draft continued until President Nixon phased out the draft in the early 1970's. The two opposing views of the war became even more split. The people who opposed the draft were called Doves, and the pro-war advocates were called Hawks. Despite the anti-war protesters, many American citizens in 1967, still remain committed to the war.

The Era of Violence: Assasinations during the 60's

The 1960s was a decade of change for America. Under the leadership of John F. Kennedy, one of the most important issues of the time was civil rights. Although being an advocate of equality made him more popular as a leader, this also created many enemies for Kennedy. Ultimately, it would be one of the reasons leading to his death.

On November 22, 1963, Kennedy and his wife had come to Dallas, Texas to meet with members of Texas's Democratic Party. They were sitting in the back seat of an open limousine with Governor John Connally and his wife, waving to fans along the streets. Mrs. Connally turned to Kennedy and said, "You can't say Dallas isn't friendly to you today." (p. 682 of textbook) Before he could answer, he was shot in the head by a rifle, and before the ambulance could arrive he was dead. Police found the killer quickly: Lee Harvey Oswald, a 24-year old Marine who was a supporter of Fidel Castro and was also against the Civil Rights movement.

In 1965, another important figure was assassinated. Malcom X, a radical believer in the Nation of Islam, initially believed that African-Americans were the superior race. His movement of racial pride was both appealing and controversial. However, he broke with the Nation of Islam and formed his own organization. This change of view upset many Black Muslims. On February 21, 1965, he was shot while giving a speech in Harlem.

April 4th, 1968 tragedy struck America once again when the leader of the Civil Rights Movement was shot down on his hotel balcony. Martin Luther King Jr., an inspiration for millions, preached nonviolent methods of gaining civil rights. He fought hard to gather people to strike and voice their opinions without hurting others. James Earl Ray who was found guilty of assasinating King, caused the largest urban riots in United States history. He did not believe in what King fought for and therefore chose to end his life and take down a man who will be forever remembered for his vital leadership throughout the Civil Rights Movement. He taught that violence was not and will never be the answer and with his death did not come defeat. The movement continued and more civil rights would be won in the near future.

King's assasination however, was not the end to the era of violence. The same year Robert Kennedy was giving a victory speech after winning the California primary elections. On his way out of the hotel in Los Angles he was shot by a young Palestinian immigrant, Sirhan Sirhan. In later questioning they found his motive to be Kennedy's support of Israel. Bobby Kennedy's death was another wrenching tragedy for many Americans.

Thousands mourned the deaths of these important leaders and vowed to keep them in their memories. Without their help we would not be where we are today. And let us today vow not to let another era of violence strike the nation.

-Hannah and Mingming

Race to the space

On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin became the first human in space. Since in this period of time the United States and the Soviet Union were big rivals in nearly every aspect of life, the Americans were crushed when they found out that they lost this “challenge”. Kennedy saw the success of the Soviet Union as a challenge to make it better. In less than a month, the Americans had duplicated the Soviet’s feat.

 In the same year, a satellite called “Telstar” sent live television pictures across the Atlantic from the States to Europe.

Meanwhile the NASA (America’s National Aeronautics and Space Administration) constructed a new launch facility in Cape Canaveral, Florida, and a control center in Houston, Texas. Everybody remembers the famous line from the Apollo 11, which was in trouble in space and sent a help request with the words “Houston, we have a problem”.

Seven Years later, on July 1969 America celebrated a big success in space history: Neil Armstrong was the first person ever to walk on the moon.

There are live television pictures of the first steps on the moon. Some people believe, that this mission wasn’t real and that this was filmed in a studio. These conspiracy theories are mostly quiet now but in the early ‘70’s, a lot of people believed in them. 

Neil Armstrong on the moon, 1969

Tuskegee Airmen

During World War II, African Americans were still subject to discrimination under the Jim Crow laws, with racial segregation extending into the military. However, in 1941, a series of legislative moves by the US Congress forced the Air Corps to form an all black unit. Thus, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was formed.

The group was comprised entirely of African American pilots, all of whom were trained at the Tuskegee Institution. Once the Squadron was deemed ready for combat, they were equipped with P-51 Mustangs, aircraft with which they came to be commonly identified.

The Airmen proved an invaluable help while capturing Sicily, their roles in the attack earning them their first Distinguished Unit Citation. Later, their successful air strikes against German forces earned the Tuskegee Airmen their second Distinguished Unit Citation. The Squadron also acted as escorts for heavy bombers; it was later credited that no aircraft escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen had ever been shot down. After the war, 350 airmen received the Congressional Gold Medal. Approximately 119 of 994 pilots are still alive.

Despite a shining combat record, the pilots of the 99th Squadron still faced discrimination from other units. Their military achievements had done little to quiet the racial discrimination that existed in the U.S.

Grace Mi

FDR and Holocaust

Franklin Delano Roosevelt was running for the 1932 presidential election. Americans were ready for a political change. Roosevelt was elected president during the great depression, dealing with this was just one of many difficult things he underwent as president. Before Roosevelt the government did not cared about the people, and after he came to power he started making the government for the people. While Roosevelt was president he came up with the new deal that was created to alleviate the problems of the great depression. New deal policies focused on three general goals: relief for the needy economic recovery, and financial reforms. On top of the issues happening in the U.S Roosevelt had a mayor problem in Europe, the Holocaust.
Shortly after Hitler took power in Germany, one of his first orders was campaign for racial purity that eventually led to the Holocaust. Jews and other minority groups were send to concentration camps. Prisoners worked from sunrise to sundown with no breaks. Early 1942 Hitler’s top officials agreed to begin a new phase of the mass murder of Jews. Roosevelt had an idea of what has going on in Europe, but he didn't realized to the full extent until it was too late to act. As a result to this million of people all across Europe, more than half of whom were jews, were killed.


Edoardo, and Da Vonnia

JFK Assasination

The Death of an American Hero

JFK was assassinated on November 22, 1963. His death is one of the most controversial presidential deaths and is often shrouded in mystery. After his death the FBI, Warren Commission, and HSCA conducted a search that concluded Lee Harvey Oswald was the murderer of JFK. However his motives remain debated as Mr. Oswald was shot by Jack Ruby before going to trial. In 1979, the HSCA and found the searches done by the FBI and Warren Commission to be faulty and concluded that it was very probabable that one of the conspiracy theories was true. Additionally they determined there was a "high probability" that there were actually two gunmen. However other private investigations have called into question the accuracy in these claims.

At around noon as JFK's limousine wsa entering dealey plaza Lee Harvey Ozwald shot Kennedy in the the back of the head killing him almost instantly the bullet then proceded to hit Governer Connally cause massive internal damage. Connally later recovered and in his statement said he instantly recognized the sound of a high powered rifle at the time he was shot. When he was shot he started crying "Oh, no, no, no. My god, they are going to kill us all!" which has spawned some conspiracy theories relating to his knowledge of the attack.

Lee Harvey Oswald was not captured until an hour and twenty minutes after the shooting. He was declared missing by his supervisor at a depository. When caught, he was found trying to get into a theatre without paying and initially resisted the police, pulline a gun and claiming they were only arressting him because he was a patsy. However he was beaten down and taken into custody. JFK's assassination shock the nation and when they truth does come out. Hopefully he can rest in peace.

-JASON

Create a Web Site - Spring Semester Project

By now you should have selected a DECADE and FOUR specific topics. On the 21st each group will give me a lay out of EACH page of your proposed web site. You must include on each page the title, and labels for each section such as photos, text, graphs. Be very specific with each topic. For example, if you selected the topic CULTURE:music of the 1970s, you could write about the "Evolution of the Jackson 5."

America's Attempt to stop Communism in Vietnam

It all began in 1950 where the U.S. provided France with massive economic and military to stop the spread of communism in Indochina. Once France surrendered in May of 1954, America stepped in and gave the anti-communist South Vietnam economic and military strength. When the Kennedy administration took control in 1961, they sent miltary advisors to train South Vietnamese troops. Kennedy's intent was to withdraw from the war, until he was assasinated, which led to Lnydon Johnson being president who escalated the role of America in the vietnam war. In 1965, preisdent Johnson began sending larger numbers of troops to Vietnam, that number increasing to 536,000 in 1968 which was the peak of soldiers in Vietnam. The soldiers began to become frusturated with the guerilla warfare the and the brutal jungle conditions they were facing. Morale was low not only where the war was being fought but also back home in America, where people were questioning what the U.S. was doing in Vietnam. Protests emerged in America; in april of 1965, there was a march of 20,000 protesters in Washington D.C. Finally, when President Richard Nixon was elected in 1969, troops finally started to be withdrawed from the war. "We have to get rid of the nightmares we inherited. One is war without end," Richard Nixon told reporters. On March 29, 1973, the last troops left Vietnam, and the war was finally over for America.

Semester Project: Create Web Site

What decade will you select? Which four topics? If you have an interest in sports, select a particular sport and focus on a team like the 1970's Oakland A's. Maybe you like the cultural aspects of the 1960s? Select one aspect like music. There was the Motown Sound with artists like Marvin Gaye, Stevie Wonder, and The Supremes. Politics of 1980's? Think Ronald Reagan. Economics are your thing. Think gasoline shortages, voodoo economics, stock market crash of 1987.

Space Program

The space race began on April 12, 1961, when the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human in space. John F. Kennedy saw this as a challenge and decided that the US would pass the Soviets by sending a man to the moon. And we did it. America's National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) began to construct new launch facilities at Cape Canaveral, Florida, and a mission control center in Houston, Texas. President Kennedy appointed Vice President Johnson as chairman of NASA shortly after they assumed office in 1961. 

Seven years after Gagarin's space trip, Neil Armstrong took his first steps on the moon. It was July 20, 1969. Because of the space program, universities expanded their science programs. The huge federal funding for research and development gave rise to new industries and technologies, many of which could be used in businesses and industry and also in new consumer goods. Space and defense-related industries sprang up in the Southern and Western, which grew rapidly.

Rosa Parks

Rosa Louise Parks is now known as the "mother of the civil rights movements". She
refused to give up her seat to a white male passenger on a Montgomery, Alabama bus after a long day of work on December 1, 1955. She answered that she did not think that she had to give up her seat when the bus driver asked her why she did not get up and move. According to Parks, she was not physically tired. Instead, she was tired of giving in and being treated unfairly. She was arrested and charged for violating part of the Montgomery City code that dealt with segregation law, though the law stated that no passengers were to be forced to give up a seat or stand when the bus became too crowded. Parks determined that this would be the last time she would suffer such kind of humiliation. "I had not planned to be arrested. "
Local civil rights activists initiated a boycott of the Montgomery bus system after learning about the incident. On December 5, most African American in the city residents walked or arranged rides, very little African- Americans rode the bus that day. Martin Luther King and the other African-American community leaders held another meeting to organize future action. Their organization was called the Montgomery Improvement Association and King was elected as the president. White community fought back with terrorism and harassment. This boycott continued for over a year. On November 13, 1956 the Court declared that Alabama's state and local laws that required segregation on buses were no longer legal. The boycott lasted 381 days and was successful.

Space Race

The space race between Soviet Union and the Unite State lasted over decade. Both countries, the United State and Soviet Union, wanted to prove their scientific superiority and to show their military strength.

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik. The successful launch of Sputnik represented the scientific superiority of the Soviet Union. In response, John F. Kennedy declared a goal, which is to land a man on the Moon before the Soviets.
In 1958, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is formed in the United States. In the same year, the United States launches its first satellite, Explorer I.
In 1959, The Soviet Union launched Luna 2. This was the first space probe to hit the moon.
In 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to orbit the Earth. Also in 1961, American astronaut Alan Shepard traveled into space in Freedom 7.
In 1962, John Glenn, Jr. became the first American astronaut to orbit the Earth.

It seemed that the Soviet Union took the lead the space race; however, the United State surpassed Soviet Union by successfully sending the first man to the moon. In July 21st, 1969, Apollo 11 mission landed Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Buzz Aldrin on the moon. Armstrong became the first human to walk on the moon. The mission fulfilled President John F. Kennedy's goal, and the United States won the space race by reaching the moon first.

Race to Space

America’s space program originally developed from the competition between the US and the Soviet Union. As a struggle for obtaining national pride, the US and the Soviet Union engaged in a space race competition to prove themselves as the most technologically advanced nation.
The US had a poor start in the space race, for on October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the world’s first artificial satellite. Sputnik traveled at 18,000 miles per hour, completing revolutions around the earth every 96 minutes. In light of this triumph of Soviet technology, the US worked hastily to complete their own space satellite; the first US satellite launch ended in failure, as the rocket collapsed onto the ground. However, the US was able to successfully launch its first satellite in January 31, 1958.
Reasons for the Soviet Union’s victory in the space race comes from the US’s reluctance to build missiles during the Cold War. At the time, the US government found research of missile production cost ineffective; considering how the current Air Force was already capable of dropping bombs, the need for missile research seemed unnecessary. As a result, the Soviet Union was more developed in missile research; because the mechanics of missile research was applied to the research of launching the first satellite into space, the Soviet Union gained an edge in satellite research, and was therefore able to launch Sputnik before the US could produce its first satellite.
Despite the Soviet Union’s victory in launching the first satellite into space, the true winner remains a debatable issue. The Soviet Union researchers believe they won the space race for a few reasons. In addition to the launch of Sputnik as the first satellite launched into to space, the Soviet Union—now Russia—believes that they won the space race for launching the first man into space. On April 12, 19621, Yuri Gargarin, a Soviet astronaut, became the first man to travel into space. In addition, the Soviet Union launched the first probe to land on the Moon. Luna 2, the first Soviet prove, landed on the Moon on September 13, 1959. On the contrary, the US saw themselves as the winners of the space race, for launching the first man into the Moon. The Apollo 11 mission ended with Neil Armstrong and his team landing on the moon on July 21st, 1969.
The Space Race was not only a great advancement in US and Soviet technology, but it was a significant aspect of the cultural competition held between the two countries. Although the true victor of the space race may be unclear, it is evident that this competition drove two successful nations to make great advancements astrophysics technology.


Written by: Marlin and Jason

Era of Violence: John F. Kennedy Assassination

On the morning of November 22, 1963, John F. Kennedy visited Dallas, Texas. He and his wife Jackie came to mend political fences with members of the state’s Democratic Party. In the fall of 1963 opinion polls stated that Kennedy lost a lot of popularity. Nevertheless he was still well loved in the States.
Mr. and Mrs. Kennedy shared a limo with Texas Governor John Connally and his wife Nellie on his way to the Texas School Book Depository. The Kennedy’s sat in the back of the limousine. As they approached the building, two gunshots were fired, and John F. Kennedy was shot in the head. He was rushed to the hospital but was unable to be revived.
The whole nation was in shock. Even today people who can remember the day of Kennedy’s assassination can recall exactly where they were and what they were doing.
24-year old Marine Lee Harvey Oswald was charged with the assassination of Kennedy. Earlier, he was dishonorably discharged and lived in the Soviet Union for a short while. He was an open supporter of Castro and believed in Communism. While he was being transferred between jails, a man broke through the crowd and killed him.
On the day of John F. Kennedy’s funeral, the 25 of November, all worked stopped while everyone in the nation watched his burial on TV. Lyndon Johnson became president and was sworn into office aboard Air Force One.
In 1963 the Warren Commission opened an investigation and concluded that Oswald had killed the president on his own and was not, like many believed, part of a conspiracy. In 1979 there was a reinvestigation, which stated that Oswald was part of a conspiracy and that two people had fired at the president. Explanations ranged from it being a plot from either anti-Castro Cubans, a Communist-sponsored attack or a conspiracy by the CIA.
America learned from this assassination that their government system was very strong and a crisis like that could not make it fall. In a speech Johnson expressed his hope that “from the brutal loss of our leader we will derive not weakness but strength”.




Miriam & Yasmeen

The Significant Flights

Tuskegee Airmen

The Tuskegee Airmen was a highly decorated WWII squadron that consisted of all black men. At the time, this was done for racial segregation due to Jim Crow laws. African Americans suffered discrimination and poor treatment along with segregation because of these Jim Crow laws. The military was yet another place victim to racial segregation. Among the brave men, fought the all African American squadron named the Tuskegee Airmen.

The Tuskegee Airmen became the first African American military airmen. The men hailed from all around the country including Los Angeles, New York, Detroit, and Philadelphia. The men were trained as single engine and double engine pilots at the Tuskegee Army Air Field, hence the name of the squadron. From 1941 to 1946, 996 pilots received their wings there and 450 went on to serve in the 99th Pursuit Squadron or the 332nd Fighter Group.

The first victory against an enemy aircraft was in Sicily. This feat has led to other crucial aerial skirmishes between the Germans and the Tuskegee Airmen where the Airmen, yet again, defeated their foes in the air. This historic victory led to many accomplishments. For one, Mussolini surrendered soon after their victory. They also won two distinguished unit citations, which is the military’s highest commendation, for their outstanding aerial combat against the Germans.

It is said that the Tuskegee airmen had to fight two wars – one against the military forces and one against inescapable racism. Even after their remarkable war records, the Tuskegee airmen did not receive much recognition after returning from war. They continued to face bigotry and racism abroad. However, the airmen were well valued in the Air Force where many units needed the black personnel but could not work with them due to segregation policies. This held until 1948, when President Harry Truman enacted Executive Order Number 9981, which directed equality of treatment and opportunity in all of the United States Armed Forces. Integration of the airmen began soon after that.

The Tuskegee Airmen were role models for future African Americans who, facing racism, would join the military. This plays a huge role because despite segregation, oppression, and racism, Africans will continue to show their respect for their country. This signifies the coming end to segregation in the future.

-Felix, Kevin

Space Program in the 1960's

In the early 1960’s space became a huge part of the race of progressivism and advancement. By 1961 the Soviet Union sent the first man into space, a man named Yuri A Gagarin. The United States took this as a challenge of who could progress further into the exploration of space and the advancement of space technology. Kennedy decided that America would be the first to send a man to walk on the moon,

            In 1958 Lyndon Johnson had founded the space program called NASA, which stood for National Aeronautics and Space Administration. As John F. Kennedy’s Vice President, Johnson was appointed chairman of NASA to overview and to see if a lunar landing was feasible.

            By July 16, 1969 Apollo 11 was launched into space by the NASA program. It was commanded by Neil Armstrong and consequentially he was the first man on the moon.

            This major accomplishment of the space program instigated major expansion and development in the field of science and space. Many Universities, which expanded and developed many new industries. New space programs in the southern and Western States grew exponentially.

McCarthyism

McCarthyism is political motive of accusing people of disloyalty, and treason with no evidence. These attacks were on suspected communist in the early 1950’s. Senator, Joseph McCarthy, the most famous anti communists activist of the 1950’s. Even though he had a reputation of being an ineffective legislator. In 1950, he realized he needed a winning issue to be reelected in 1952. Searching for such an issue, McCarthy charged that communists were talking over the government, and this is how McCarthyism was born. Some causes of McCarthyism were: soviets successfully establish Communist regimes in Easter Europe after WWII, Soviets develop the atomic bomb more quickly than expected, Korean War ends in a stalemate, Republicans gain politically by accusing Truman and Democrats of being on Communism. Some effects of these causes are: Americans were subjected to taking loyalty oath and undertaking loyalty investigations, and Many Americans were afraid of speaking about their minds. In 1954, McCarthy made accusations against the U.S army, which accused a national televised Senate investigation. McCarthy’s bullying of witnesses caused him to loose the support of the public. The Senate condemned McCarthy for improper conduct that “tended to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute.” Three years later he died from alcoholism, ending the McCarthyism era.


by Da Vonnia, and Edoardo

Who Shot JKF?

Who is JFK?
JFK is John F. Kennedy, the 35th president of the United States. Originally a senator from Massachusetts, Kennedy who provided a more youthful and charismatic view of the Federal Government. As he was the second youngest and the first Roman Catholic president, many doubted his abilities. But JFK was able to trumph these doubts with his charming and convincing appearances during the televised debates in the election of 1960, where he outshone competitor Richard Nixon. In addition, his support for the Civil Rights Movement captured the attention- and votes- of many in the African-American community.

Tensions Arise
Despite his well-accepted popularity in the United States, there were still those, particularily in the South, who aggresively opposed his stance on Civil Rights. The passionate opposition radically increased after JFK had his Attorney General, Robert (Bobby) Kennedy and the justice department investigate lynchings there. He also prestented Congress with a major Civil Rights Bill, instigating further opposition to his policies.

Kennedy had (albeit more reluctantly than Republican Eisenhower) also adopted the same anti-communist stance that the US government was expected to keep in the Cold War against the USSR. He approved the Bay of Pigs attack by Cuban counter-revolutionaries and CIA operatives. Later, he took the blame for its failure and negotiated with Fidel Castro for the release of the captured agents. He stood firm during the Soviet missile crisis, forcing Soviet ships providing nuclear weapons to Cuba, and denied Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev from blockading West Berlin during the building of the Berlin wall. Although this culled some favor among Americans, it clearly angered one man...

The Assassination
In response to the downward trend of popularity among Southern voters, the first family visited Dallas, Texas on November, 22nd, 1963. As JFK, his wife, Jacqueline and Governor,John Connally, traveled through the streets of Dallas, they recieved a surprisingly warm welcome from the citizens. Near the Texas School Book Depository, Nelly, the governor's wife said to JFK, "Dallas [is] friendly to you today."
At that moment, a rifle was fired, and a bullet penatrated the back of President Kennedy's skull. Despite an efficent rush to the hospital and frantic attempts by doctors, John F. Kennedy was dead.

The Assassin
Soon Americans crowded around their TV sets; everyone had the same question-- who dun it?

mericans watched Dallas police charge Lee Harvey Oswald- whose fingerprints were found on the rifle used in the assassination- with the murder. Oswald, who had deserted the Marines after a dishonorable discharge, had lived in the USSR and had been a supporter of Fidel Castro. There was even some evidence that his family had been white supremacists. Unfortunately for investigators, two days after the assassination, Oswald himself was killed by nightclub owner Jack Ruby while he was being transfered between jails.

The Aftermath
Many different government organizations and individuals have held multiple theories about the murder. The original 1963 Warren Commission stated that these were the actions of a single madman, but a1979 re-investigation hinted at conspiracy and discovered that Oswald was not the only shooter that day. Other explanations have included Cuban counter-revolutionaries, USSR connections, and a CIA cover-up.

While we did lose a great leader, the US showed its resilience in the smooth transition to the Johnson Presidency. The night Kennedy was killed, Vice President Lyndon Johnson took the oath of office aboard Air Force One, and with his own style of leadership, continued the same reforms begun by JFK, which would be seen in the late 60s.

-Gayan and Cat

The Kennedy Administration

JOHN F. KENNEDY and his influence on America

John F. Kennedy (JFK) was a Massachusetts senator before winning the presidency in 1960. His support of civil rights won him the votes of some of the African American demographic and along with his performance in the televised debate, he was able to pull through the election barely ahead of Nixon.
JFK was also very involved with his family. His was the first family to ever occupy the White House, which fascinated the American public. People were very interested in all of their habits and followed each and every action of the young family.
The New Frontier was Kennedy's vision of progress and he focused on a policy of increased spending to help pull the US Economy out of its recession. He also increased minimum wage, unemployment insurance, and gave special assistance to areas with high unemployment rates.
One great accomplishment is that Kennedy began the Peace Corps, a volunteer program that provided assistance to developing nations. He was very concerned with helping people in whatever way he could. Another program he founded was Alliance for Progress which offered economic support to Latin American countries.
In 1963, Kennedy began focusing on domestic issues like civil rights and he also brought forth a tax cut proposal. He was known for having a very bright administration surrounding him and backing him up. McGeorge Bundy, a Harvard University Dean, and Ford Motor Company President Robert McNamara were secretary of defense and secretary of state. His greatest adviser was his brother Robert who he appointed as attorney general.
However, in 1963 his work was cut short when he was assassinated and killed by Lee Harvey Oswald. The tragedy hit the nation hard and people were devastated by the lost of a great leader.



-Hannah and Mingming

1950's Culture

Life in the 1950's after World War II was often called the "American Dream". It was an age of conformity, suburbs, and the middle class.

Business boomed in the 1950's and more and more people were in the middle class and more and more middle class were working white collar instead of blue collar jobs. The prospering businesses stressed the importance of conformity to standardize the ideal worker. This was good in keeping everything organized and standardized, but its disadvantage was that it discouraged individuality and creativity.

The lack of goods during the war cause people to buy new things almost carelessly in the 1950's after the war ended. People wanted a comfortable life, good job, health and happy family, and an affordable house and car. Now that vehicles and highways were becoming more widespread and affordable, people began to live away from cities although many still worked there because they now had an easy means or transporting to work. People set up neighborhoods around cities called suburbs that fit the American dream of a comfortable life and conformity with its ideal nice neighbors, "cookie-cutter" houses, and the almost (socially) required car per family. 

In addition to the standardized suburbs, people bought other things that came to symbolize the American dream. Household items and products were especially popular as the new and important television portrayed women as housewives buying new "must-have" appliances. The increase in leisure time due to the increase of people buying time-saving, labor-saving appliances and having better jobs, caused the the increase of people pursuing various recreational entertainments and buying many books to read for entertainment. Consumerism was soon seen as a meter for success because it showed how much money a family had and how well off they were to have all these good they were denied from having during the war.

by Nicky

Mccarthyism

Joseph McCarthy was a anti communist activist. He was a republican from Wisconsin. After learning he was an ineffective legislature he looked for a winning issue in order to be elected in 1952. Looking for an issue McCarthy stated that communists were taking over the American government. He took advantage of peoples fear of communism and made countless claims against innocent people. These attacks on the "suspected" communists became known as McCarthyism.
During the period he was in the senate, he made accusations of having in his hands the names of 57, 81 and 205 communists in the senate, but he never actually gave a single name. He also accused the entire democratic party of 20 years of treason for allowing communist infiltration of the government. Another tactic he used was only stating his accusations in the senate, where he had legal immunity from being sued for slander.
Republicans did very little to stop the madness because they wanted him to win the presidential election based on his popularity. However, in 1940 his plan backfired, when he made accusations against the U.S. army. This resulted in a nationally televised investigation, and because of this he lost public support. The senate condemned him for improper conduct, and three years later he died from alcoholism.
There are a wide variety of effects McCarthyism had on the American people. For example, millions of Americans were forced to loyalty oaths and undergo investigations. It also caused many people to be scared and question their right of free speech. Anti-communism continues to drive U.S. foreign policy even today.

1950s Culture

During the 1950s, World War II just ended, and Americans had to readjust to post-war life. The fear of another Great Depression and the fear of a nuclear war caused Americans to strive for conformity and economic security. This led to the American Dream, or the ideal way of living for the people in the 1950s.

The American Dream included things for people of all types. For men, it was ideal to get a white-collar job, or clerical, managerial, or professional occupations. Unlike blue-collar jobs, white-collar workers tended to work in sales and advertising. White-collar jobs also paid more. However, this financial security came with a price. Businesses do not like creative thinkers or rebels. This created a loss of individuality for individuals.

For women, the role of a homemaker and mother was glorified in the 1950s. It was the dream of many women to work at home and become the "keeper" of the family. However, this led to dissatisfaction among some women. The boredom of being at home and the lack of fulfillment in their lives caused more and more women to work outside of home. Even so, jobs for women outside of the house were limited to nursing, teaching, and office support. Women were also paid less for the same amount of work.

In addition to creating ideals for men and women, the 1950s introduced teenagers to the world. With the conformity of life and the increased usage of television, young adults deviated from the ways of their parents and formed a culture of their own. With icons like James Dean, Marlon Brando, and Elvis Presley, teenagers popularized rebelliousness, having fun, and rock 'n' roll.

Of course, culture of the 1950s could not have flourished without the use of cars. During this decade, the creation of new suburbs made owning a car a necessity. This caused the automotive industry to flourish, stimulating production and providing jobs in related areas. Drive-in movies, drive-thru franchises, restaurants, and shopping malls became popular. However, this automania was also deadly. Car accidents increased every year, and traffic jams raised stress levels. The necessity of cars also created a wider gap between the middle class and the poor.

The culture of the 1950s was influenced by the need for conformity and economic stability. This caused men to want white-collar jobs, women to want to become homemakers and mothers, and teenagers to rebel from the conformity that their parents liked. All this is supported and emphasized by the availability of automobiles.

- Angela

1950's Culture

The 1950's reflected a period of extreme conformity. Businesses such as McDonald's developed into franchises and conglomerates. Society became standardized, and with it the work became standardized. Individuality was repressed in face of economic advancement.

Consumerism also experienced an increase. Material goods became equated with success, and people bought hundreds of new products. Recreational items such as televisions, tape recorders, and record players were also popular; many tasks were being completed by electrical household appliances and Americans founds themselves with more and more leisure time.

Household appliances were not the only ubiquitous products. Automobiles suddenly became and available commodity when the war ended. The abundance of petroleum led to inexpensive and plentiful fuel for consumers. Conforming, suburban residents found themselves in need of a car to drive to their jobs in the cities.

But not all aspects of society had the opportunity to live like this. The mass movement of white Americans from the cities to the suburbs took economic resources away with them. The rural poor were forced to migrate to the inner cities. Most of those who were affected were minority groups.

-Grace Mi

April - Poetry Month

April is National Poetry Month. The Gunn Library is celebrating poetry month by displaying poetry from the Gunn community. If you would like to participate, see Ms. Omainsky, our new librarian.

Blog Dates to Remember

March 24 (Wed.): Create and publish to class blog posting #3
March 31(Wed.): Turn in a copy of posting #3 and COMMENTS sheet

April 28 (Wed.): Create & publish to class blog posting #4
May 5 (Wed.): Hand in a COPY of the posting #4 and COMMENTS sheet

1950's Culture: Consumerism and Conformity

After the war, businesses expanded rapidly and the economy skyrocketed. Industrial jobs became less common, and more people worked in higher-paying jobs usually in sales or advertising. Franchises began popping up around the country- McDonald's, for example, was one of the most successful franchises of the time and today it is also the largest. The significance of these franchises was that they helped to standardize what people ate. The 50s was also a conformity movement, and in ways besides their diet, American lives were being more and more standardized. A loss of individuality had to be paid in exchange for economic advancement. In the business world, there was no room for creativity.

Another theme during the era was the exploding population, commonly called the "baby boom". When soldiers returned home, they settled into family life again. During the 50s, there was a large emphasis on marriage and family, especially for women. Men were back in the work force, and women became homemakers once again. The American dream of the 1950s was: single-family home in the suburbans, safe healthy environment for children with good schools nearby, and jolly neighbors all around. The dream house also had all the latest technology in household appliances, so that the woman who stayed at home all day would have to do less work and she could be happier and livelier. Less work meant more leisure time, and during the 50s Americans had more of that than ever before. With more vacation time, automobiles played a significant role in the 50's lifestyle. Now not just a commodity, cars even had their own style. Many of them were marketed for fashion and fun. With the automobile came drive-thru at franchises, and franchises meant consumerism. Buy, buy, buy became the mentality all around the media and at home.

Although the 1950's were all about conformity, youth rebelled stronger than ever. They shaped the pop-culture movement during this time: for the first time ever teens dressed differently from their parents and they listened to different music. Rock and roll started as a trend among youth but grew unto older generations as well. These youth moved on into the 60's to create the decade which became the rebuttal of the 50's: the era of non-conformity.

by Mingming

Tuskegee Airmen

The 99^th pursuit Squadron was an all-back squadron of brave men, who played a mayor part in Italy fighting against the Germans. They were called the Tuskegee Airman. This squadron registered its first victory against an enemy aircraft, and created impressive strategic strikes against the German forces throughout Italy. The Tuskegee Airman won two distinguished Unit Citations (the military’s highest commendation) for their outstanding aerial combat against the German Luftwaffe. This group of one of many minorities groups who tried to help during the war, and made huge accomplishments throughout the war.

by edoardo

Japanese-Americans Confined during World War II

Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor shook the entire nation and caused panic in many citizens that Japan would strike again in the United States. Rumors began to spread around that Japanese Americans were sabotaging the U.S. in support of Japan. Because of this, Japanese Americans faced prejudice even if they were American citizens. In early 1942, the War Department ordered Japanese Americans to evacuate from Hawaii. However, General Emmons, the governor of Hawaii, refused the order because removing the Japanese Americans would destroy the economy and US military operations.

In February 1942, President Roosevelt signed an order requiring people of Japanese descent living on the West Coast to be removed and placed in “relocation centers”, which were essentially prison camps. Approximately 110,000 Japanese Americans were relocated, two-thirds of which were Nisei (of Japanese descent but born in the United States). The US military justified this step as necessary for national security.

Families were forced to sell their homes, businesses, and possessions for low value. The confinement camps were barren and isolated, and children were separated from their parents for most of the day with the exception of breakfast. Life within the barbed-wire fences was both tragic and terrifying. In the end, no specific charges were filed against any Japanese Americans, and no evidence of sabotage was ever found.

Because of the injustice they faced, Japanese Americans fought for a very long time for compensation. In Korematsu v. United States in 1944, the Supreme Court justified the evacuation of Japanese Americans as a “military necessity.”

The Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) pushed the government for restitution to everyone who faced internment. Finally, in 1990, a $20,000 check was sent to every Japanese American who was confined in a relocation camp.

“We can never fully right the wrongs of the past. But we can take a clear stand for justice and recognize that serious injustices were done to Japanese Americans during World War II.” –President George Bush

National Memorial in Washington, DC

-Mingming C.

Women in Wartime

During the WWII, America was in need of military work force. The Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall formed the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) in order to fulfill this demand. He said that there were many jobs that could be done better by women. Women volunteers would serve in noncombat positions under this bill.  Though there  was a lot of opposition from members of Congress, the bill establishing WAAC became law on May 15, 1942.  Women received salary though they didn’t have as many benefits as the male soldiers did. In July 1943, the U.S. Army dropped the “auxiliary” status, and the WACs started to receive full U.S. Army benefits. They served as nurses, ambulance drivers, radio operators, electricians , and pilots.

The defense contractors warned the Selective Service System that AMerica didn't have enough workers in the beginning of  WWII. However, they were proved wrong when nearly 18 million workers started contributing for the war in 1944. Out of the 18 million workers laboring in war industries, more than 6 millions were women. Factories thought that women did not have the strength to do physical work and were unwilling to hire them at first. However, when they realized that women operated machines as well as men, they started to hire a lot of women. Women had proved that they could do jobs and contribute to the nation as well as men did.